Macrocyclic modulators of disease associated protein misfolding and aggregation

ABSTRACT

Aspects of the present invention disclose compounds that modulate the aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins or peptides. In some aspects, disclosed compounds modulate the aggregation of disease-associated proteins and natural β-amyloid peptides. In a preferred embodiment, the compounds can inhibit natural amyloid aggregation. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds of the embodiments, and diagnostic and treatment methods for diseases (e.g., amyloidogenic diseases) using the compounds, are also disclosed. In addition, there is provided an integrated bacterial platform for the discovery of rescuers of disease-associated protein misfolding.

This application claims the benefit of International Patent ApplicationNo. PCT/EP2017/025141, entitled “MACROCYCLIC MODULATORS OF β-AMYLOIDMISFOLDING AND AGGREGATION” filed on 22 May 2017, and of InternationalPatent Application No. PCT/EP2017/025298, entitled “MACROCYCLIC RESCUERSFOR DISEASE-ASSOCIATED PROTEIN MISFOLDING” filed on 5 Oct. 2017, each ofwhich is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Aspects of the present invention relate to a generalizable bacterialplatform for the discovery of chemical modulators of the problematicfolding and aggregation of disease-associated, misfolding-proneproteins. More particularly, studies herein demonstrate theapplicability of this platform to biosynthetically produce largecombinatorial libraries of macrocyclic compounds in Escherichia colicells and to simultaneously screen these libraries in order to identifythe bioactive compounds with the ability to rescue the problematicfolding and aggregation of mutant Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase using ahigh-throughput genetic assay. Furthermore, studies herein demonstratethe wider applicability of this platform to identify the bioactivecompounds with the ability to rescue the problematic folding andaggregation of additional misfolding-prone polypeptides, such as theβ-amyloid peptide. In some aspects, compounds of the inventionpreferably rescue the misfolding and modulate the aggregation of humanCu/Zn superoxide dismutase and of its variants. In further aspects, ofthe invention rescue misfolding and modulate the aggregation of naturalβ-amyloid peptides. In a preferred embodiment, the compounds can inhibitthe aggregation of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase and of its variants. Inanother preferred embodiment, compounds of the present invention caninhibit natural β-amyloid peptide aggregation. In another preferredembodiment, the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase modulator compounds of theinvention are head-to-tail cyclic oligopeptides, or variants thereofcarrying specific modifications, such that the compound alters theaggregation or inhibits the neurotoxicity of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutaseand of its variants when contacted with the peptides. In anotherpreferred embodiment, the β-amyloid modulator compounds of the inventionare head-to-tail cyclic oligopeptides, or variants thereof carryingspecific modifications, such that the compound alters the aggregation orinhibits the neurotoxicity of natural β-amyloid peptides when contactedwith the peptides. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compoundsof the invention, and diagnostic and treatment methods for amyloidogenicdiseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, using the compounds ofthe invention, are also disclosed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Protein misfolding is currently linked to more than 50 diseasesincluding Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington'sdisease, type 2 diabetes, cystic fibrosis, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Gaucher's disease, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, andCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease. These disorders are collectively termed“conformational diseases” or “protein misfolding diseases” (PMDs). Thereare two ways that misfolded prone proteins (MisPs) lead to disease; oneis when they lose their ability to execute their physiological function(loss-of-function) and the other when they acquire a new harmfulproperty (gain-of-function). Cellular or environmental factors such aschanges in pH, oxidative stress, exposure to high concentrations ofmetal ions and other chemicals, as well as the presence of a mutation ormutations in amino acid sequences of particular proteins, can play acritical role in protein misfolding. Protein misfolding diseases arebecoming more common as the population ages, as many of them areage-related.

PMDs include very serious disorders with high incidence rates and asevere impact on the well-being of the human population, and anti-PMDtherapeutics are in enormous demand. One of the most promisingapproaches for identifying potential anti-PMD therapeutics is thediscovery of chemical rescuers of protein misfolding. Such moleculeshave already been identified for a number of MisPs. For example, linearpeptides with homology to certain regions of the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ)and small molecules, such as scyllo-inositol, tramiprosate, methyleneblue and bexarotene, have been found to modulate Aβ aggregation andinhibit its neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo, and some of them havesubsequently advanced to clinical studies. Similarly, peptides withhomology to the unstructured central hydrophobic region of thePD-related protein α-synuclein (asyn) and natural products, such asbaicalein and (2)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate have exhibited similareffects on asyn. Indeed, the small molecule tafamidis, which is capableof rescuing the misfolding of the carrier protein transthyretin, hasrecently been approved for the treatment of familial amyloidoticpolyneuropathy in Europe and Japan and is currently marketed under thename Vyndaqel® (Pfizer). The compound and its use for the treatmenttransthyretin amyloid disease have been disclosed in the European patentEP1587821.

Macrocycles have been characterized as a particularly promising class ofcompounds of potential therapeutics, which remain underexplored(Driggers, E. M., Hale, S. P., Lee, J. & Terrett, N. K. The explorationof macrocycles for drug discovery—an underexploited structural class.Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 7, 608-624 (2008)). Macrocycles occupy the spacebetween small molecules and larger biologicals and often exhibit theadvantages of both classes of molecules i.e., the high bioavailabilityof small molecules combined with the high specificity and the fewerside-effects of biologicals. Furthermore, their typically larger sizeand more complex structure makes the macrocycles particularly suitablefor targeting currently undrugable targets, such as ones involved inprotein-protein interactions. Since many PMDs are characterized byprotein aggregation, a process that is dependent on productiveprotein-protein interactions, macrocycles can be expected to beparticularly active modulators for this class of disorders. Theirtherapeutic potential is slowly beginning to rise in a wide variety ofdiseases and shown in U.S. Pat. No. 9,308,236 wherein macrocycles areshown to inhibit PD-1/PD-L1 (Programmed Death 1) and CD80/PD-L1protein/protein interactions, and are thus useful in amelioratingvarious diseases including cancer and infectious diseases.

Amyorophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder thataffects the motor neurons of the spinal cord, brain stem, and cortex ofadults most frequently between 50 and 60 years of age. The disease isultimately fatal with an average survival time of 3-5 years. Its causesremain both enigmatic and controversial. The majority of cases (90-95%)have no known genetic link and are termed sporadic. For the rest of the5-10% of cases, there is typically a family history of ALS, the diseaseis inherited (familial ALS, fALS), and it is caused by genetic mutationspresent in specific chromosomal loci. Approximately one quarter of allcases of the familial disease are associated with missense mutationsmapped onto SOD1, the gene encoding for the enzyme Cu/Zn superoxidedismutase (SOD1).

Superoxide dismutases (SODs) belong to the family of isoenzymes involvedin the scavenging of O₂ radicals. All mammalian cells possess threeisoforms of superoxide dismutase enzymes; the cytosolic copper-zincdimeric form, known as SOD1, the mitochondrial tetrameric manganesesuperoxide dismutase or SOD2 and the extracellular tetrameric Cu, Znsuperoxide dismutase or SOD3. All enzymes catalyze the same reactionconverting the oxygen radical in molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxideH₂O₂ through the alternate reduction and reoxidation of Cu2⁺ for SOD1and SOD3 and Mn for SOD2; the H₂O₂ is then enzymatically converted bycatalase and glutathione peroxidase in molecular oxygen and H₂O. Inphysiological conditions, the superoxide dismutases, together with thenon-enzymatic reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers vitamins E, A,and C, maintain a steady state between oxidant and anti-oxidant systems.

To date, more than 150 mutations in SOD1 have been found to beassociated with fALS (http://alsod.iop.kcl.ac.uk/home.aspx). Theseresult in amino acid substitutions, C-terminal truncations and othermodifications in the amino acid sequence of SOD1. It is now wellestablished that these changes in the sequence of SOD1 do not cause ALSdue to loss or decrease of enzymatic activity. The main pieces ofevidence supporting this are that: (i) SOD1-knockout mice do not developALS phenotypes, (ii) the onset and duration of motor neuron disease intransgenic mice carrying fALS-associated SOD1 alleles is similarirrespective of the presence or absence also of the wild-type allele inthe animal, and (iii) many fALS-associated SOD1 variants (SOD1*) retainwild type-like levels of dismutase activity. Instead, it has beenproposed that fALS-linked mutations introduce a toxic-gain-of-functionproperty in SOD1 by causing protein misfolding and aggregation, and theformation of oligomeric/aggregated SOD1 species which are highly toxicfor motor neurons. Gradual accumulation of such toxicoligomers/aggregates of mutated SOD1 initiates motor neuron degenerationand the development of fALS. Indeed, many observations support thistheory: (i) biochemical studies of a variety of fALS-associated SOD1variants have been found to be less stable, more prone to misfolding,and with higher aggregation propensity compared to wild-type SOD1, (ii)prominent SOD1 aggregates have been found in the cytosolic space ofcultured motors neurons, in motor neurons and in neighboring astrocytesof SOD1* transgenic mice, and of fALS patients, (iii) SOD1* aggregatedspecies have been found to be toxic for motor neurons, (iv)SOD1*-induced motor neuron toxicity can be suppressed by up-regulatingactors that assist SOD1* folding and inhibit its aggregation, such asthe heat shock response regulator Hsf1, and (v) the combination ofaggregation propensity and loss of stability in fALS-associated SOD1*variants has been found to be a good predictor of disease severity. Thetheory that SOD1*-linked fALS is a conformational disorder/proteinmisfolding disease is in agreement with the prevalent theoriesconcerning the molecular origin of other major neurodegenerativediseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and priondisorders (1. Chiti, F. Dobson, C. M. Protein misfolding, functionalamyloid, and human disease. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 75, 333-366 (2006)).

Despite the major advances in identifying genes and mechanismscontributing to ALS pathogenesis, there exist only two currentlyapproved therapeutics: the glutamate antagonist Riluzole and the freeradical scavenger that is believed to relieve the effects of oxidativestress, Radicava. However, both treatments only extend the life or thetime to mechanical ventilation of the patient by two to three months.Therefore, there still remains a need for developing a novel andcost-effective treatment approach to ALS that will overcome theobstacles and side-effects of the current treatment regime that onlyresult in a minor delay of the outcome of the disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common progressiveneurodegenerative disease that causes dementia in aged humans. Thiscondition affects more than 7 million people in Europe and 35 millionpeople worldwide. In financial terms, these numbers translate to anannual AD treatment cost of $818 billion only for the United States(2015 World Alzheimer Report). Due to the aging of the human population,the incidence of AD has been rising steadily in recent years and isprojected to increase by 200% within the next 20 years.

AD is neuropathologically characterized by intraneuronal neurofibrillarytangles consisting of abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau, extracellularaccumulation of fibrillar amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in senile plaques, andthe build-up of soluble Aβ oligomers in the brain. The amyloid cascadehypothesis, which states that the formation of oligomeric and/orfibrillar Aβ in the brain is neurotoxic and that their accumulationresults in neuronal degeneration and death, and the development of AD isthe prevalent theory regarding the molecular sources behind thepathology of AD.

Aβ is produced by the cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) asa result of the action of the proteases β- and γ-secretase. Due to thebroad amino acid recognition specificity of γ-secretase, its proteolyticactivity on APP leads to the formation of different forms of Aβpeptides. The main product of APP cleavage consists of 40 amino acids(Aβ₄₀), while one of the secondary products yields a 42-amino-acid-longpeptide (Aβ₄₂). Aβ is an amphipathic peptide that includes a hydrophilic(amino acids 1-16) and a hydrophobic region (amino acids 17-40/42). Aβ₄₂contains two additional amino acids at its C terminus and exhibitshigher hydrophobicity and higher tendency for aggregation than Aβ₄₀. Dueto the distribution of the hydrophobic amino acids in its sequence, Aβis unable to adopt a well-defined conformation. As a result, certainhydrophobic regions of the Aβ sequence remain exposed to the aqueousenvironment of the cell and the protein tends to form oligomers andhigher-order aggregates. As mentioned above, these soluble oligomersand/or higher-order aggregates are thought to be the neurotoxic Aβspecies that initiate AD. AD can thus be viewed as a proteinopathy,which is initiated due to the peculiar biochemical/biophysicalproperties of Aβ and its associated problematic folding (misfolding),thus categorizing AD in the large group of disorders called“conformational diseases” or “protein misfolding diseases” as describedabove.

Despite the huge socioeconomic impact of AD and intense research effortsfor decades, preventive or therapeutic treatments against AD do notexist currently. Anti-AD therapies could be developed by identifyinginhibitors of anyone step of the pathway that is initiated by thebiosynthesis of Aβ and results in neuron degeneration and thedevelopment of dementia. For example, molecules with the ability todecrease the concentration of circulating Aβ could act as agents thatdown-regulate the formation of neurotoxic Aβ species and the onset ofthe disease. This could be achieved, for instance, by using antibodiesagainst Aβ that lead to sequestration, degradation, and/or clearance ofthe peptide, or by using β- and γ-secretase inhibitors which inhibit APPcleavage and decrease the rate of biosynthesis of Aβ. Such compoundshave already been discovered but they haven't yet demonstrated thedesired therapeutic profiles, primarily due to unwanted side effects.For example, γ-secretase inhibitors have exhibited undesired actions inother physiological pathways, such as Notch signaling, which causeserious side effects in mice (gastrointestinal tract symptoms etc.).

Compounds which can bind to Aβ, correct its problematic folding, andprevent the formation of Aβ oligomers/aggregates have the potential tofunction as inhibitors of Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and become effectivedrugs against AD. Small molecules, such as scyllo-inositol,tramiprosate, methylene blue and bexarotene, have been found to modulateAβ aggregation and inhibit its neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. Inaddition, linear peptides with homology to certain regions of Aβ haveexhibited similar properties. These and other research efforts have ledto the identification of a number of promising compounds which have beenor are being tested in clinical trials. Until now, however, no compoundhas demonstrated the desired preventive or therapeutic propertiesagainst AD. Irrespective of whether it is the oligomeric or moreaggregated forms of Aβ which are primarily responsible for itsneurotoxicity and other pathogenic effects, the discovery of chemicalmodulators of the natural Aβ oligomerization/aggregation process isconsidered a very promising approach, since Aβoligomerization/aggregation is viewed as a purely pathogenic process,which is not involved in other physiological functions in the cell. Suchmolecules are thus expected to exhibit a safer pharmacological profile.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1B: (A) (Left) Schematic of the pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectorlibrary encoding the combinatorial oligopeptide librarycyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅. Nu: Cys (C), Ser (S), or Thr (T); X: any of the 20natural amino acids; NNS: randomized codons, where N=A, T, C or G andS=G or C; I_(C): C-terminal fragment of the split Ssp DnaE intein;I_(N): N-terminal fragment of the split Ssp DnaE intein; CBD:chitin-binding domain. (Right) Intein-mediated peptide cyclization usingSICLOPPS. The tetra-partite fusion undergoes intein splicing upon inteinfragment re-association, leading to peptide cyclization and theproduction of the cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library. (B) Theoretical and actualdiversity of the constructed combinatorial cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅oligopeptide library.

FIGS. 2A-2C: (A) Relative fluorescence of E. coli BL21(DE3) (left) andOrigami 2(DE3) (right) cells overexpressing chimeric SOD1-GFP fusionsfrom the corresponding pETSOD1-GFP vectors. Mean values±s.e.m. arereported (n=3 independent experiments, each one performed in replicatriplicates). (B) Solubility analysis of overexpressed SOD1-GFP fusionsby SDS-PAGE/western blotting using an anti-polyHis antibody.Representative data from n=2 independent experiments are presented. (C)Solubility analysis of SOD1 variants overexpressed as in (A, right) bySDS-PAGE/western blotting using an anti-polyHis (left) or an anti-FLAG(right) antibody. Representative data from n=2 independent experimentsare presented. The assay was performed using E. coli Origami 2(DE3)cells overexpressing GFP-free SOD1 from the corresponding pETSOD1vectors by the addition of 0.01 mM IPTG at 37° C. for 2 h.

FIGS. 3A-3G: (A) Schematic representation of the utilized bacterialplatform for the discovery of cyclic oligopeptide rescuers of MisPmisfolding and aggregation. pMisP-GFP: plasmid encoding a MisP-GFPfusion; pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅: vector library encoding the combinatorialoligopeptide library cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅. Nu: Cys (C), Ser (S), or Thr(T); X: any of the twenty natural amino acids; NNS: randomized codons,where N=A, T, C or G and S=G or C; P: sorting gate. (B) FACS screeningof E. coli BL21(DE3) overexpressing SOD1(A4V)-GFP and the combinedcyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ oligopeptide library. M: mean GFP fluorescence inarbitrary units. (C) Fluorescence of E. coli Origami 2(DE3) cellsco-expressing SOD1(A4V)-GFP and four individual cyclic peptide sequencesisolated after the fourth round of FACS sorting shown in (B) byutilizing wild-type Ssp DnaE intein or the splicing-deficient SspDnaE(H24L/F26A) intein. Mean values±s.e.m. are reported (n=4 independentexperiments, each one performed in replica triplicates). (D) Westernblot analysis using an anti-CBD antibody of the four individual selectedclones investigated in (C). The upper band of ˜25 kDa corresponds to theI_(C)-peptide sequence-I_(N)-CBD precursor, while the lower band of ˜20kDa corresponds to the processed I_(N)-CBD product, whose appearance isan indication of successful intein processing and cyclic peptideformation. CBD: chitin-binding domain. (E) Fluorescence of E. coliOrigami 2(DE3) cells co-expressing SOD1(A4V) or A1342-GFP from thevectors pETSOD1(A4V)-GFP or pETAβ₄₂-GFP, respectively, together with thecyclic peptides encoded by the selected clones 1-4 investigated in (C).The SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence of the cell population producing a randomcyclic peptide was arbitrarily set to 100. Experiments were carried outin replica triplicates (n=1 independent experiments) and the reporteddata correspond to the mean value±s.e.m. (F) Solubility analysis ofSOD1(A4V)-GFP overexpressed with/without the four selected cyclicpeptide sequences shown in (C) by SDS-PAGE/western blotting using ananti-polyHis antibody. (G) DNA sequences of the peptide-encoding regionsof the pSICLOPPS vectors contained in the selected clones tested in (C)along with the predicted amino acid sequences of the cyclicoligopeptides that they encode.

FIGS. 4A-4F: (A) Chemical structure of the selected cyclic pentapeptideSOD1C5-4. (B) Circular dichroism spectra of SOD1(A4V) incubatedwith/without the selected cyclic pentapeptides SOD1C5-4, AβC5-34 orAβC5-116 at room temperature for 90 d (1:1 and 5:1 indicate cyclicpeptide:SOD1(A4V) molar ratios). Representative spectra from n=2independent experiments are presented. (C) Dynamic light scatteringanalysis of SOD1(A4V) incubated with/without the selected cyclicpentapeptides at room temperature for 60 d. Representative data from n=2independent experiments are presented. (D) Thioflavin T (ThT)fluorescence of SOD1(A4V) incubated with/without the selected cyclicpentapeptides at room temperature for 90 d. Representative data from n=2independent experiments are presented. (E) Filter retardation assay ofSOD1(A4V) incubated with/without the selected cyclic pentapeptides at37° C. for 25 d. Representative images from n=2 independent experimentsperformed in replica duplicates are presented. (F) Differential scanningfluorimetry analysis of isolated SOD1(A4V) in the presence or absence ofthe selected cyclic pentapeptide SOD1C5-4 (5:1 peptide to protein ratio)using the conformation-sensitive dye SYPRO Orange. Data corresponding ton=2 independent experiments each one performed in three replicates±s.e.m. are presented.

FIGS. 5A-5C: (A) HEK293 cells transiently expressing SOD1-GFP (top row)or SOD1(A4V)-GFP (middle and bottom rows) in the absence and presence ofthe selected cyclic pentapeptide SOD1C5-4 and visualized by confocalmicroscopy. (B) Relative number of cells containing SOD1 aggregates inthe cultures described in (A). Aggregate-positive cells are presented aspercentage of the total viable and GFP-positive cells. (C) Relativeviability of cells in the cultures described in (A). The viability ofcells expressing wild-type SOD1 was arbitrarily set to 100.

FIGS. 6A-6E: (A) Distribution of the different types of selected cyclicoligopeptides among the bacterial clones selected for enhancedSOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence after the fourth round of FACS sorting (FIG.3B). (B) Heat maps depicting the amino acid distribution in thesequences of the selected TXSXW pentapeptides after the fourth round ofFACS sorting (FIG. 3B) as revealed by deep sequencing analysis. (C)Frequency of appearance of codons corresponding to the twenty naturalamino acids at positions 2 and 4 of the peptide-encoding region of thepSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors contained in the bacterial clones afterthe fourth round of FACS sorting (FIG. 3B) that encoded for TXSXW cyclicpentapeptides (3,939,406 reads corresponding to TXSXW cyclicpentapeptides out of 4,243,704 total reads that appeared more than 50times in the sorted peptide pool). (D) Frequency of appearance of thetwenty natural amino acids at positions 2 and 4 of the unique TXSXWcyclic pentapeptides encoded by the pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectorscontained in the bacterial clones isolated after the fourth round ofFACS sorting (FIG. 3B) (46 unique peptide sequences corresponding toTXSXW cyclic pentapeptides out of 367 total unique selected peptidesequences that appeared more than 50 times in the sorted peptide pool).(E) Fluorescence of E. coli Origami 2(DE3) cells co-expressing SOD1-GFP,containing either wild-type SOD1 wt) or the ALS-associated variantsSOD1(G37R), G(85R) or (G93A) from the corresponding pETSOD1-GFP vectors,together with the indicated selected cyclic peptides. Experiments werecarried out in replica triplicates (n=1 independent experiments) and thereported data correspond to the mean value±s. d.

FIG. 7: Sequences and frequency of appearance of the selected cyclicTXSXW pentapeptides as determined by high-throughput sequencing of theisolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors after the fourth round ofbacterial sorting for enhanced SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence.

FIGS. 8A-8G: Depiction of the molecular evolution process with whichmacrocyclic rescuers of pathogenic Aβ misfolding and aggregation areidentified.

FIGS. 9A-9E: Selected cyclic oligopeptides interfere with the normal Aβaggregation process.

FIGS. 10A-10D: Selected cyclic oligopeptides inhibit Aβ-inducedneurotoxicity in vitro.

FIGS. 11A-11D: Selected cyclic oligopeptides inhibit Aβ-inducedneurotoxicity in vivo.

FIGS. 12A-12H: Next-generation sequencing and site-directed mutagenesisanalyses may be used in order to identify all bioactive cyclicoligopeptide Aβ modulators contained in the tested cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library and to facilitate structure-activity analyses of the isolatedsequences.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It is an object of the present invention to provide short, drug-likepeptide macrocycles with the ability to rescue the misfolding,aggregation and associated pathogenic effects of a prominentaggregation-prone and disease-associated protein target. Particularly,the object of the present invention is to identify cyclic oligopeptidesthat rescue the misfolding and modulate the natural aggregation processof SOD1 and of its variants, which are implicated in pathogenicity ofALS and fALS. Various tetra- and penta- and hexapeptides with theseproperties are described in the present invention. More particularly theinventors have identified the general formula cyclo-NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N),wherein Nu=C, S, or T; X is any of the twenty natural amino acid andN=3-5 as a very rich source of chemical rescuers of SOD1 misfolding andmodulators of its aggregation.

Another aspect of the present invention is the identification ofpentapeptide macrocycles with the general formula cyclo-TXSXW, whereinthe first amino acid is Threonine, the third amino acid is a Serine, thelast amino acid is Tryptophan and X is any amino acid, as effective andpreferred misfolding rescuers and modulators of the natural process ofSOD1. More preferred misfolding rescuers and modulators of SOD1aggregation are cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting thecyclo-TΨ₁SΨ₂W motif, where Ψ₁=any amino acid excluding isoleucine (I),asparagine (N), glutamine (Q), methionine (M), glutamic acid (E),histidine (H), and lysine (K); and Ψ₂=any amino acid excludingisoleucine (I), asparagine (N), glutamine (Q), cysteine (C), asparticacid (D), glutamic acid (E), lysine (K) and proline (P). Even morepreferred misfolding rescuers and modulators of SOD1 aggregation arecyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting the cyclo-T(Φ₁,S)S(Φ₂,M,H)Wmotif, where Φ₁ is preferably one of the hydrophobic (Φ) amino acids A,W or F, while Φ₂ is preferably V, W or F. A small group of three cyclicpentapeptide rescuers with this general formula T(Φ₁,S)S(Φ₂,M,H)W areanalyzed further.

In the present invention, isolated cyclic oligopeptides are alsoprovided, which comprise the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ IDNO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, up to SEQ ID NO:46. Nucleicacid sequences encoding a polypeptide of the invention are alsoprovided. Vectors containing such nucleic acids, and cells containingsuch vectors, are also provided.

Another object of the present invention is to provide sufficientevidence that the selected peptide macrocycles are successful ininhibiting the misfolding and aggregation of SOD1. More particularly theinventors have studied the SOD1(A4V), a fALS-associated variant, whosemisfolding and aggregation causes a very aggressive form of the diseasewith an average survival time of only 1.2 years after diagnosis. Indeedthe effects of three selected oligopeptide macrocycles in inhibiting themisfolding and aggregation of SOD1 are shown using appropriatebiochemical and/or biophysical assays.

Another object of the present invention is to provide sufficientevidence that the selected peptide macrocycles are successful ininhibiting the aggregation of SOD1* and the neurotoxicity caused bySOD1* aggregation in vitro. Indeed the effects of one selectedpentapeptide macrocycle in inhibiting the aggregation and toxicity ofSOD1(A4V) are shown in cultured mammalian cells.

Another objective of the present invention is to provide hybridpolypeptides that comprise a peptide motif that specifically interactswith the target polypeptide, which is then inserted into an appropriateprotein scaffold. The polypeptide motif is inserted into the scaffoldsuch that any desired function of the scaffold is retained and theinserted motif as presented retains its ability to specifically bind tothe target and/or modulate the natural aggregation process of the targetpolypeptide. The scaffold can include, for example, neuroprotectiveagents to make SOD1 aggregates less toxic, aggregate-destroyingmolecules to eliminate amyloid SOD1 species, reagents that prevent SOD1aggregate formation, or reagents useful for specifically imaging SOD1aggregates in brain tissue.

It is also an object of the present invention to provide an integratedbacterial platform for the discovery of chemical/biological modulatorsof the problematic folding and aggregation of SOD1. In this system,large combinatorial libraries of genetically encoded macrocycles arebiosynthesized in E. coli cells and are simultaneously screened fortheir ability to modulate the problematic folding and aggregation ofSOD1 using a high-throughput genetic screen, which is based on thedetection of enhanced fluorescence of chimeric SOD1-GFP fusions.

It is an object of the present invention to provide short, drug-likepeptide macrocycles with the ability to rescue the misfolding,aggregation and associated pathogenic effects of a second prominentaggregation-prone and disease-associated protein target. Particularly,the object of the present invention is to identify cyclic oligopeptidesthat rescue the misfolding and modulate the natural aggregation processof the β-amyloid peptide, which is implicated in pathogenicity ofAlzheimer's disease. Various tetra-, penta- and hexapeptides with theseproperties are described in the present invention. More particularly theinventors have identified the general formula cyclo-NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N),wherein Nu=C, S, or T; X is any of the twenty natural amino acid andN=3-5 as a very rich source of chemical rescuers of Aβ misfolding andmodulators of its aggregation.

Another aspect of the present invention is the identification ofpentapeptide macrocycles with the general formula cyclo-TXXXR, whereinthe first amino acid is Threonine, the last amino acid is Arginine and Xis any amino acid, as effective and preferred modulators of the naturalprocess of Aβ aggregation. More preferred modulators of Aβ aggregationare cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting the cyclo-TΦZFIR motif,where Φ=any amino acid excluding phenylalanine (F), tryptophan (W),tyrosine (Y), glutamine (Q), aspartic acid (D), glutamic acid (E),lysine (K) and proline (P); Z is any amino acid excluding E; and Π isany natural amino acid excluding Q, methionine (M) and lysine (K). Evenmore preferred are cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting thecyclo-T(T,A,V)Ψ(A,D,W)R motif, where Ψ is a non-negatively charged aminoacid. A small group of six cyclic pentapeptide rescuers with thisgeneral formula cyclo-TXXXR are analyzed further.

Another aspect of the present invention is the identification oftetrapeptide macrocycles with the general formula cyclo-TXXR, whereinthe first amino acid is Threonine, the last amino acid is Arginine and Xis any amino acid, as effective and preferred modulators of the naturalprocess of Aβ aggregation. More preferred modulators of Aβ aggregationare cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting the cyclo-TΘΛR motif, whereΘ=T, R, D, L, F or A, and Λ=C, R, S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F. A small groupof two cyclic tetrapeptide rescuers with this general formula cyclo-TXXRare analyzed further.

Another aspect of the present invention is the identification ofhexapeptide macrocycles as effective and preferred modulators of thenatural process of Aβ aggregation. Preferred modulators of Aβaggregation are cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting thecyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ motif for the use in rescuing Aβ misfolding andmodulating aggregation, wherein Nu is T; wherein X₁ is any amino acidselected from I, L, V, C, S, K or P, and is more preferably P, V or L;wherein X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, C, S, T, D, E, H, K, P, orG and is more preferably V or A; wherein X₃ is selected from I, L, V, F,W, Y, E or R, and is more preferably W; wherein X₄ is selected from L,V, F, Y, S or R and is more preferably F; wherein X₅ is selected from W,M, N, D or E and is more preferably D. The cyclic hexapeptide comprisingthe sequence TPVWFD is analyzed further.

In the present invention, isolated cyclic oligopeptides are alsoprovided, which comprise the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ IDNO:47, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:50, up to SEQ ID NO:205.The inventors also identified the pentapeptide macrocycles cyclo-SASPT(SEQ ID NO:206), cyclo-SHSPT (SEQ ID NO:207), cyclo-SICPT (SEQ IDNO:208) and cyclo-SITPT (SEQ ID NO:209) as effective and preferredmodulators of the natural process of Aβ aggregation. Furthermore theinventors also identified the tetrapeptide macrocycles cyclo-TTCR (SEQID NO:210), cyclo-TTRR (SEQ ID NO:211), cyclo-TTSR (SEQ ID NO:212),cyclo-TTGR (SEQ ID NO:213), cyclo-TRGR (SEQ ID NO:214), cyclo-TRRR (SEQID NO:215), cyclo-TDQR (SEQ ID NO:216), cyclo-TLIR (SEQ ID NO:217),cyclo-TLWR (SEQ ID NO:218), cyclo-TLGR (SEQ ID NO:219), cyclo-TFDR (SEQID NO:220), and cyclo-TAFR (SEQ ID NO:221) as effective and preferredmodulators of the natural process of Aβ aggregation. Finally, theinventors also identified the hexapeptide macrocycles comprising theamino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:222, SEQ ID NO:223, . . . ,up to SEQ ID NO:255 as effective and preferred modulators of the naturalprocess of Aβ aggregation. Nucleic acid sequences encoding a polypeptideof the invention are also provided. Vectors containing such nucleicacids, and cells containing such vectors, are also provided.

Another object of the present invention is to provide sufficientevidence that the selected peptide macrocycles are successful inmodulating Aβ aggregation. Indeed the effects of ten selectedoligopeptide macrocycles in modulating Aβ aggregation are shown usingappropriate biochemical and/or biophysical assays.

Another object of the present invention is to provide sufficientevidence that the selected peptide macrocycles are successful ininhibiting the neurotoxicity caused by Aβ aggregation in vitro. Indeedthe effects of two selected pentapeptide macrocycles in inhibitingneurotoxicity of Aβ aggregation are shown in cultured primaryhippocampal neurons.

A main objective of the present invention is to show the successful invivo rescuing of the misfolding and aggregation of β-amyloid peptide bythe selected macrocycles produced by the technique described in thepresent invention. The protective effects of the selected cyclicpeptides against Aβ aggregation and toxicity in vivo are demonstrated inestablished AD animal models in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C.elegans).

Another objective of the present invention is to provide hybridpolypeptides that comprise a peptide motif that specifically interactswith the target polypeptide, which is then inserted into an appropriateprotein scaffold. The polypeptide motif is inserted into the scaffoldsuch that any desired function of the scaffold is retained and theinserted motif as presented retains its ability to specifically bind tothe target and/or modulate the natural aggregation process of the targetpolypeptide. The scaffold can include, for example, neuroprotectiveagents to make amyloid plaques less toxic, amyloid destroying moleculesto eliminate plaques, reagents that prevent amyloid plaque formation, orreagents useful for specifically imaging amyloid plaques in braintissue.

It is also an object of the present invention to provide an integratedbacterial platform for the discovery of chemical/biological modulatorsof the problematic folding and aggregation of Aβ. In this system, largecombinatorial libraries of genetically encoded macrocycles arebiosynthesized in E. coli cells and are simultaneously screened fortheir ability to modulate the problematic folding and aggregation of Aβusing a high-throughput genetic screen, which is based on the detectionof enhanced fluorescence of chimeric Aβ-GFP fusions.

It is also an object of the present invention to provide a generalizableintegrated bacterial platform for the discovery of chemical/biologicalmodulators of the problematic folding and aggregation ofdisease-associated, misfolding-prone proteins (MisPs). In this system,large combinatorial libraries of genetically encoded macrocycles arebiosynthesized in E. coli cells and are simultaneously screened fortheir ability to modulate the problematic folding and aggregation of thetarget MisP using a high-throughput genetic screen, which is based onthe detection of enhanced fluorescence of chimeric MisP-GFP fusions.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method ofidentifying modulators of a misfolding-prone protein associated with aprotein misfolding disease, comprising: (A) obtaining a population oftransformed bacterial cells that co-express: (a) a nucleic acid encodinga library of peptide macrocycles, operably linked to a promoter and (b)a bipartite nucleic acid comprising a sequence for a gene encoding amisfolding-prone protein associated with a protein misfolding disease(MisP) and a sequence encoding a protein reporter; (B) identifyingbacterial cells of step (A) that exhibit enhanced levels of proteinreporter activity; and (C) identifying the bioactive peptide macrocyclesin the library that modulate MisP misfolding. In some aspects, theprotein reporter is a fluorescent protein (FP) reporter, and step (B)comprises identifying bacterial cells that exhibit enhanced levels ofMisP-FP fluorescence. In some aspects, the protein reporter is anenzyme. In some aspects, the identification in step (B) comprisesselection. In some aspects, step (C) comprises sequencing the nucleicacid of step (Aa). In certain aspects, the nucleic acids of (a) and (b)are encoded on the same vector. In particular aspects, the vector is aplasmid.

In aspects of the embodiments, said MisP is selected from β-amyloidpeptide, SOD1, tau, α-synuclein, polyglutaminated huntingtin,polyglutaminated ataxin-1, polyglutaminated ataxin-2, polyglutaminatedataxin-3, prion protein, islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin),β2-microglbulin, fragments of immunoglobulin light chain, fragments ofimmunoglobulin heavy chain, serum amyloid A, ABri peptide, ADan peptide,transthyretin, apolipoprotein A1, gelsolin, transthyretin, lysozyme,phenylalanine hydroxylase, apolipoprotein A-I, calcitonin, prolactin,TDP-43, FUS/TLS; insulin, hemoglobin, al-antitrypsin, p53, or variantsthereof. In some aspects, said peptide macrocycle can be a ribosomallysynthesized as a head-to-tail cyclic peptide, side-chain-to-tail cyclicpeptide, bicyclic peptide, lanthipeptide, linaridin, proteusin,cyanobactin, thiopeptide, bottromycin, microcin, lasso peptide,microviridin, amatoxin, phallotoxin, θ-defensin, orbitide, or cyclotide.In some aspects, the disease is selected from amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,cancer, phenylketonuria, type 2 diabetes, senile systemic amyloidosis,familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, familial amyloid cardiomyopathy,leptomeningeal amyloidosis, systemic amyloidosis, familial Britishdementia, familial Danish dementia, light chain amyloidosis, heavy chainamyloidosis, serum amyloid A amyloidosis, lysozyme amyloidosis,dialysis-related amyloidosis, ApoAI amyloidosis, Finnish type familialamyloidosis, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Icelandictype), medullary carcinoma of the thyroid, pituitary prolactinoma,injection-localized amyloidosis, frontotemporal dementia,spinocerebellar ataxia 1, spinocerebellar ataxia 2, spinocerebellarataxia 3, α1-antitrypsin deficiency, sickle-cell anemia, ortransmissible spongiform encephalopathy. In further aspects, the methodcomprises recombinantly producing or chemically synthesizing theidentified bioactive peptide macrocycle.

In some aspects, there is provided a method of treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of a protein misfolding disease comprising administering to asubject a therapeutically effective amount of the bioactive peptidemacrocycle identified by the embodiments and aspects of the inventionprovided herein. In another aspect, there is provided a pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising the bioactive peptide macrocycle according to theembodiments or aspects of the invention provided herein, and apharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In some aspects, the pharmaceuticalcomposition may be used for the treatment or prevention of a proteinmisfolding disease.

In some aspects, there is provided a hybrid molecule comprising: a) apeptide macrocycle identified or produced according to the method of anyof the embodiments or aspects of the invention provided herein, and b) ascaffold molecule linked to the peptide macrocycle. In some aspects, thescaffold molecule is a diagnostic or a therapeutic reagent. Inparticular aspects, the therapeutic reagent is a cytoprotective agentthat renders the aggregates of the target protein less toxic or inhibitstarget protein aggregate formation. In some aspects, the scaffoldmolecule comprises all or a sufficient portion of a protein selectedfrom the group consisting of antibodies, enzymes, chromogenic proteins,and fluorescent proteins. In specific aspects, the diagnostic reagentspecifically targets protein aggregates in diseased or healthy tissue.

In some aspects, there is provided a method of treating or diagnosing aprotein misfolding disease associated with aberrant aggregate formation,the method comprising administering a hybrid molecule according to theembodiments and aspects provided herein, wherein the peptide macrocycleof the hybrid molecule specifically interacts with the amyloid ornon-amyloid form of the target MisP.

In some embodiments, there is provided a peptide comprising the aminoacid sequence NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), wherein: Nu is T; N=4; X₁ is any aminoacid excluding I, N, Q, M, E, H, and K; X₂═S; X₃ is any amino acidexcluding I, N, Q, C, D, E, K and P; and X₄═W, wherein the specificallyinteracts with the amyloid or non-amyloid form of SOD1 and/or mutantSOD1. In some aspects, the X₁ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, C, S, T, D, R, P orG. In particular aspects, the X₁ is is S, A, F or W. In some aspects,the X₃ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H or G. In certain aspects, theX₃ is V, F, W, M, or H. In specific aspects, the X₃ is W. In someaspects, Nu is T; N=4; X₁ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, C, S, T, D, R, P or G;X₂═S; X₃ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H or G; and X₄═W. Inparticular aspects, Nu is T; N=4; X₁ is S, A, F or W; X₂═S; X₃ is V, F,W, M, or H; and X₄═W.

In some embodiments, there is provided a peptide comprising the aminoacid sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NO:1-46, wherein thepeptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.In some aspects, the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selectedfrom TWSVW, TASFW, and TFSMW. In some aspects, said peptide preventsmisfolding and aggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1. In some aspects,at least one position of the peptide is a D amino acid. In certainaspects, the peptide is a cyclic peptide. In other aspects, the peptideis a linear peptide.

In some aspects, there is provided a hybrid molecule comprising: a) apeptide set forth in the embodiments and aspects provided herein, and b)a scaffold molecule. In some aspects, the scaffolding molecule comprisesa cell penetrating peptide. In specific aspects, the scaffold moleculecomprises a diagnostic or therapeutic reagent. In certain aspects, thescaffold molecule comprises a polypeptide, small molecule or compound.In some aspects, the scaffold molecule comprises all or a sufficientportion of a protein selected from the group consisting of antibodies,enzymes, chromogenic proteins, fluorescent proteins and fragmentsthereof. In some aspects, the therapeutic agent is a neuroprotectiveagent that renders SOD1 aggregates less toxic or inhibits SOD1 aggregateformation. In some aspects, the diagnostic reagent specifically imagesSOD1 aggregates in neuronal tissue.

In some aspects of the embodiments provided herein, there is provided apeptide or a molecule to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregationwherein the peptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of SOD1 and/ormutant SOD1. In particular, there is provided a method of treatment,prevention or diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis comprisingadministering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of apeptide or hybrid molecule according to any one of the embodiments oraspects provided herein.

In some aspects, there is provided a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a peptide or hybrid molecule according to any of the aspectsor embodiments provided herein, and a pharmaceutically acceptablecarrier. In some aspects, the pharmaceutical composition is used for thetreatment or prevention of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In someaspects, there is provided an isolated nucleic acid sequence encodingthe peptide of the aspects or embodiments provided herein. In someaspects, there is a vector comprising said nucleic acid sequence. Insome aspects, the vector is an expression vector. In certain aspects,there is provided a host cell comprising said vector. In certainaspects, the host cell is a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.

In some embodiments, there is provided a peptide wherein the peptidecomprises the amino acid sequence NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), wherein: (A) Nu=T;N=3; X₁ is selected from T, R, D, L, F or A; X₂ is selected from C, R,S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F; and X₃═R; (B) Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is any amino acidexcluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding E;X₃ is any amino acid excluding Q, M and K; and X₄ is R; or (C) Nu=T;N=5; X₁ is I, L, V, C, S, K or P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding Y, N,Q, M, and R; X₃ is selected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, E, or R; X₄ isselected from L, V, F, Y, S or R; and X₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, orE, wherein the peptide specifically interacts with a monomeric,oligomeric and/or amyloid form of the Aβ peptide. In some aspects, Nu=T;N=3; X₁ is selected from T, R, D, L, F or A; X₂ is selected from C, R,S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F; and X₃═R. In certain aspects, Nu=T; N=4; X₁ isany amino acid excluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P; X₂ is any amino acidexcluding E; X₃ is any amino acid excluding Q, M and K; and X₄ is R. Inspecific aspects, X₁ is selected from A, I, L, V, N, C, M, S, T, R, H,or G. In particular aspects, X₁ is T, V or A. In some aspects, X₂ isselected from A, I, L, V, F, W, Y, N, Q, C, M, S, T, D, R, H, K, P or G.In certain aspects, X₂ is I, L, V, F, Y or T. In specific aspects, X₃ isA, I, L, V, F, W, Y, N, C, S, T, D, E, R, H, P or G. In particularaspects, X₃ is A, W, or D. In some aspects, Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is selectedfrom A, I, L, V, N, C, M, S, T, R, H, or G; X₂ is selected from A, I, L,V, F, W, Y, N, Q, C, M, S, T, D, R, H, K, P or G; X₃ is A, I, L, V, F,W, Y, N, C, S, T, D, E, R, H, P or G; and X₄ is R. In certain aspects,Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is T, V or A; X₂ is I, L, V, F, Y or T; X₃ is A, W, or D;and X₄ is R. In specific aspects, Nu=T; N=5; X₁ is I, L, V, C, S, K orP; X₂ is any amino acid excluding Y, N, Q, M, and R; X₃ is selected fromI, L, V, F, W, Y, E, or R; X₄ is selected from L, V, F, Y, S or R; andX₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, or E. In particular aspects, X₁ isselected from I, L, V, C, S, K or P. In specific aspects, the X₁ is P, Vor L. In some aspects, X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, C, S, T, D,E, H, K, P, or G. In certain aspects, X₂ is V or A. In some aspects, X₃is selected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, E or R. In specific aspects, X₃ is W.In some aspects, X₄ is selected from L, V, F, Y, S or R. In specificaspects, X₄ is F. In some aspects, X₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, or E.In specific aspects, X₅ is D. In some aspects, Nu=T; N=5; X₁ is P, V orL; X₂ is V or A; X₃ is selected from I, F, or W; X₄ is selected from L,F, or R; and X₅ is selected from W, N, or D. In certain aspects, Nu=T;N=5; X₁ is P, V or L; X₂ is V or A; X₃ is W; X₄ is F; and X₅ is D. Insome aspects, the peptide comprises the sequence TTCR, TTRR, TTSR, TRGR,TTGR, TRRR, TDQR, TLIR, TLWR, TLGR, TFDR, or TAFR (SEQ ID NOs 210-221).

In some embodiments, there is provided a peptide comprising the aminoacid sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NO:47-209, wherein, thepeptide is cyclic and specifically interacts with a monomeric,oligomeric and/or amyloid form of the Aβ peptide. In some aspects, thepeptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from TAFDR, TAWCR,TTWCR, TTVDR, TTYAR, TTTAR or SASPT. In some aspects, the the peptidecomprises an amino acid sequence selected from the amino acid sequencesset forth in SEQ ID NO:176-209. In some aspects, the peptide comprisesan amino acid sequence of TPVWFD (SEQ ID NO:176) or TPAWFD (SEQ IDNO:177). In some aspects, at least one position of the peptide is a Damino acid. IN some aspects, the peptide is a cyclic peptide. In otheraspects, the peptide is a linear peptide.

In some aspects, there is provided a hybrid molecule comprising: a) apeptide set forth in any one of the embodiments or aspects, thatspecifically interacts with a monomeric, oligomeric and/or amyloid formof the Aβ peptide; and b) a scaffold molecule. In some aspects, thescaffolding molecule comprises a cell penetrating peptide. In certainaspects, the scaffold molecule comprises a diagnostic or therapeuticreagent. In particular aspects, the scaffold molecule comprises apolypeptide, small molecule or compound. In specific aspects, thepolypeptide comprises all or a sufficient portion of a protein selectedfrom the group consisting of antibodies, enzymes, chromogenic proteins,or a fluorescent protein. In some aspects, the therapeutic agent is aneuroprotective agent that renders amyloid plaques less toxic orinhibits plaque formation. In some aspects, the diagnostic reagentspecifically images oligomers and/or amyloid aggregates in neuronaltissue.

In some aspects of the invention, there is provided methods for the useof a peptide or molecule according to any of the embodiments or aspectsprovided herein, to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation. In someaspects, said peptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of theβ-amyloid peptide.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method of treatment, preventionor diagnosis of a disease related to protein misfolding and aggregation,comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amountof a peptide or molecule according to any of the embodiments or aspectsprovided herein, wherein the disease is selected from Alzheimer'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, type 2 diabetes, familialamyloidotic polyneuropathy, systemic amyloidosis, and transmissiblespongiform encephalopathy. In some aspects, there is provided a methodof treatment, prevention or diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease comprisingadministering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of apeptide according to any one of the aspects or embodiments providedherein. In some aspects, there is provided a pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a peptide according to any one of the aspects or embodimentsprovided herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In someaspects, there is provided a nucleic acid encoding any of said peptides.In some aspects, there is a provided a vector comprising said nucleicacid. In some aspects, the vector is an expression vector. In someaspects, there is provided a host cell comprising said vector. In somecases, the host cell is a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.

Other objects and advantages of the present invention will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art in view of the following detaileddescription.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. General

It is now well established that fALS-linked amino acid substitutions inSOD1 introduce a toxic-gain-of-function property in SOD1 by causingprotein misfolding and aggregation, and the formation ofoligomeric/aggregated SOD1 species, which are highly toxic for motorneurons. Gradual accumulation of such toxic oligomers/aggregates ofmutated SOD1 initiates motor neuron degeneration and the development offALS. Also, the accumulation of misfolded and aggregated wild-type SOD1has been implicated in sporadic forms of ALS. This invention pertains tocompounds, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof, that can modulatethe aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins and peptides, in particularcompounds that can rescue the misfolding and inhibit the aggregation ofSOD1 or of its fALS-associated variants and inhibit the neurotoxicity ofthese aggregated SOD1 species. A compound of the invention thatmodulates aggregation of SOD1, referred to herein interchangeably as aSOD1 modulator compound, a SOD1 modulator or simply a modulator, altersthe aggregation of SOD1 or of its fALS-associated variants when themodulator is contacted with SOD1 or of its fALS-associated variants.Thus, a compound of the invention acts to alter the natural aggregationprocess or rate of SOD1 or of its fALS-associated variants, therebydisrupting the normal course this process. A modulator which inhibitsSOD1 and/or mutant SOD1 aggregation (an “inhibitory modulator compound”)can be used to prevent or delay the onset of the deposition of SOD1and/or mutant SOD1 aggregates. Moreover, inhibitory modulator compoundsof the invention inhibit the formation and/or activity of neurotoxicaggregates of SOD1 or of its fALS-associated variants (i.e., theinhibitory compounds can be used to inhibit the neurotoxicity of SOD1 orof its fALS-associated variants).

Alternatively, in another embodiment, a modulator compound of theinvention promotes the aggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1. Thevarious forms of the term “promotion” refer to an increase in the amountand/or rate of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1 aggregation in the presence ofthe modulator, as compared to the amount and/or rate of SOD1 and/ormutant SOD1 aggregation in the absence of the modulator. Such a compoundwhich promotes SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1 aggregation is referred to as astimulatory modulator compound. Stimulatory modulator compounds may beuseful, for example, in decreasing the amounts of neurotoxic SOD1 and/ormutant SOD1 oligomeric species by driving the natural SOD1 aggregationprocess towards the (possibly) less neurotoxic higher-order SOD1 and/ormutant SOD1 aggregates.

Compounds of the present invention may inhibit SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1aggregation and/or oligomerization. In particular, preferred modulatorcompounds of the invention comprise cyclic oligopeptides with thegeneral formula cyclo-NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), where X is any one of thetwenty natural amino acids, N=3-5 and Nu=cysteine (Cys or C), serine(Ser or S) or threonine (Thr or T), which is sufficient to alter (andpreferably inhibit) the natural aggregation process or rate of SOD1and/or mutant SOD1. This SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1 modulator can compriseas few as four amino acid residues (or derivative, analogues or mimeticsthereof).

According to the prevalent amyloid cascade hypothesis, the high tendencyof Aβ for misfolding and aggregation results in the formation ofneurotoxic oligomers/aggregates, whose accumulation ultimately leads toneuron degeneration and the development of the disease. This inventionpertains to compounds, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof, that canmodulate the aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins and peptides, inparticular compounds that can modulate the aggregation of the β-amyloidpeptide (Aβ) and inhibit the neurotoxicity of Aβ. A compound of theinvention that modulates aggregation of Aβ, referred to hereininterchangeably as a Aβ modulator compound, a Aβ modulator or simply amodulator, alters the aggregation of natural Aβ when the modulator iscontacted with natural Aβ. Thus, a compound of the invention acts toalter the natural aggregation process or rate of Aβ, thereby disruptingthe normal course this process. A modulator which inhibits Aβaggregation (an “inhibitory modulator compound”) can be used to preventor delay the onset of β-amyloid deposition. Moreover, inhibitorymodulator compounds of the invention inhibit the formation and/oractivity of neurotoxic aggregates of natural Aβ peptide (i.e., theinhibitory compounds can be used to inhibit the neurotoxicity of Aβ.

Alternatively, in another embodiment, a modulator compound of theinvention promotes the aggregation of natural Aβ peptides. The variousforms of the term “promotion” refer to an increase in the amount and/orrate of Aβ aggregation in the presence of the modulator, as compared tothe amount and/or rate of Aβ aggregation in the absence of themodulator. Such a compound which promotes Aβ aggregation is referred toas a stimulatory modulator compound. Stimulatory modulator compounds maybe useful, for example, in decreasing the amounts of neurotoxicoligomeric species by driving the natural Aβ aggregation process towardsthe (generally) less neurotoxic higher-order Aβ aggregates.

Compounds of the present invention may inhibit Aβ aggregation and/oroligomerization. In particular, preferred modulator compounds of theinvention comprise cyclic oligopeptides with the general formulacyclo-NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), where X is any one of the twenty natural aminoacids, N=3-5 and Nu=cysteine (Cys or C), serine (Ser or S) or threonine(Thr or T), which is sufficient to alter (and preferably inhibit) thenatural aggregation process or rate Aβ. This Aβ modulator can compriseas few as four amino acid residues (or derivative, analogues or mimeticsthereof).

II. Discovery of Peptide SOD1 and Aβ Modulators

The present application describes the invention of a generalizablebacterial platform for the discovery of macrocyclic peptide rescuers ofthe misfolding of disease-associated, misfolding-prone proteins (MisPs).The inventors demonstrate the generalizability of this integratedbacterial platform by discovering macrocyclic peptides that modulate theproblematic folding and aggregation of SOD1, mutant SOD1, or Aβ.

This approach offers a number of important advantages. First, it allowsthe screening of molecular libraries with expanded diversities. Here, alibrary with diversity >10 million different macrocycles has beeninvestigated.

In another embodiment, the present invention can be applied to constructand screen macrocyclic libraries with diversities up to 10¹⁰ differentmolecules. Importantly, E. coli can support the in vivo biosynthesis notonly of head-to-tail cyclic peptides like the ones investigated here,but also of other macrocyclic structures, such as side-chain-to-tailcyclic peptides, bicyclic peptides, cyclotides, macrolides and othermacrocyclic structures, which can accommodate not only naturallyoccurring amino acids, but a large variety of artificial ones as well.

In addition, the analysis of these large libraries is carried out usinga very high-throughput genetic screen, which enables the identificationof bioactive molecules simply by isolating compounds that enhance thefluorescence of E. coli cells expressing MisP-GFP, such as SOD1*-GFP orAβ-GFP fusions, by flow cytometric sorting (FACS). Compared toaffinity-based approaches for screening DNA-encoded chemical libraries,such as phage and mRNA display, the herein described approach does notdetect mere target MisP, such as SOD1* or Aβ, binding, but selectsdirectly the bioactive compounds with the ability to rescue MisP, suchas SOD1* or Aβ, misfolding, without requiring the availability ofpurified MisP, such as SOD1* or Aβ.

Moreover, synthesis of the studied compounds and their screening forbioactivity are carried out in vivo as part of a single-step process,without the need for laborious organic synthesis and product isolationsteps. Importantly, screening for bioactivity is carried out in a fullyunbiased manner without requiring a priori knowledge of the structuresof the MisP, such as SOD1* or Aβ, monomers, oligomers, or higher-orderaggregates, specific assumptions about possible binding sites, or priorpreparation of specific MisP, such as SOD1* or Aβ, oligomerizationstates.

More particularly, combinatorial libraries of random cyclic tetra-,penta-, and hexapeptides have been created and the most prominenttargets have been selected to study as potential rescuers of SOD1 and Aβmisfolding. The technology described in the present invention utilizes atechnique termed split intein circular ligation of peptides and proteins(SICLOPPS) for producing peptide libraries in E. coli. SICLOPPS usessplit inteins, i.e. self-splicing protein elements for performing N- toC-terminal peptide cyclization and biosynthesize cyclic peptides asshort as four amino acids long. The only requirement for the inteinsplicing reaction and peptide cyclization to occur is the presence of anucleophilic amino acids cysteine (C), serine (S), or threonine (T) asthe first amino acid of the extein following the C-terminus of theintein.

According to the present invention, peptides belonging to the generalformula NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), can be used for rescuing protein misfoldingand modulating protein aggregation; wherein X is any one of the twentynatural amino acids, N=3-5 and Nu is selected from cysteine (Cys or C),serine (Ser or S) or threonine (Thr or T). According to the preferredembodiment of the present invention the peptide is a cyclic peptide.According to the preferred embodiment of the present invention Nu is T.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptide with thegeneral formula cyclo-NuX₁ X₂ . . . X_(N), for the use in proteinmisfolding and aggregation, has the following specifications wherein Nis 3, wherein Nu is T; wherein X₁ is selected from T, R, D, L, F or A,wherein X₂ is selected form C, R, S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F; wherein X₃ isR. According to the above specification the preferred cyclictetrapeptide is selected from cyclo-TTCR (SEQ ID NO:164), cyclo-TTRR(SEQ ID NO:165), cyclo-TTSR (SEQ ID NO:166), cyclo-TTGR (SEQ ID NO:167),cyclo-TRGR (SEQ ID NO:168), cyclo-TRRR (SEQ ID NO:169), cyclo-TDQR (SEQID NO:167), cyclo-TLIR (SEQ ID NO:171), cyclo-TLWR (SEQ ID NO:172),cyclo-TLGR (SEQ ID NO:173), cyclo-TFDR (SEQ ID NO:174), and cyclo-TAFR(SEQ ID NO:175) as effective and preferred modulators of the naturalprocess of Aβ aggregation.

In another preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptidewith the general formula NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), for the use in rescuingprotein misfolding and modulating, has the following specificationswherein N is 4, wherein Nu is preferably T; wherein X₁ is any amino acidexcluding I, N, Q, M, E, H, and K, and more preferably it is S, A, W, orF; wherein X₂ is preferably S; wherein X₃ is any amino acid excluding I,N, Q, C, D, E, K and P, and is more preferably selected from V, W, F, M,or H; wherein X₄ is preferably W. According to the above specificationthe preferred pentapeptide is selected from the amino acid sequences setforth in SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, . . . , upto SEQ ID NO:46. According to the above specification the more preferredpentapeptide is selected from cyclo-TASFW (SEQ ID NO:2), cyclo-TWSVW(SEQ ID NO:4), and cyclo-TFSMW (SEQ ID NO:6).

In another preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptidewith the general formula NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), for the use in rescuingprotein misfolding and modulating aggregation, has the followingspecifications wherein N is 4, wherein Nu is T or S; wherein X₁ is anyamino acid excluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P, preferably it is S, H,T, V or A, and more preferably it is T, V or A; wherein X₂ is any aminoacid excluding E, preferably a non-negatively charged amino acid, andmore preferably it is selected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H, orG; wherein X₃ is any amino acid excluding Q, M and K, and is morepreferably selected from A, V, F, W, C, S, T, D, C, R, H, P or G;wherein X₄ is preferably R or T. According to the above specificationthe preferred pentapeptide is selected from the amino acid sequences setforth in SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:50, . . . ,up to SEQ ID NO: 205. According to the above specification the morepreferred pentapeptide is selected from cyclo-TAFDR (SEQ ID NO:86),cyclo-TAWCR (SEQ ID NO:63), cyclo-TTWCR (SEQ ID NO:60), cyclo-TTVDR (SEQID NO:48), cyclo-TTYAR (SEQ ID NO:47), cyclo-TTTAR (SEQ ID NO:56), andcyclo-SASPT (SEQ ID NO:206).

In another preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptidewith the general formula NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), for the use in rescuingprotein misfolding and modulating aggregation, has the followingspecifications wherein N is 5, wherein Nu is T; wherein X₁ is any aminoacid selected from I, L, V, C, S, K or P, and is more preferably P, V orL; wherein X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, C, S, T, D, E, H, K, P,or G and is more preferably V or A; wherein X₃ is selected from I, L, V,F, W, Y, E or R, and is more preferably W; wherein X₄ is selected fromL, V, F, Y, S or R and is more preferably F; wherein X₅ is selected fromW, M, N, D or E and is more preferably D. The hexapeptide according tothe above specifications is selected from the amino acid sequences setforth in SEQ ID NO:222, SEQ ID NO:223, . . . , up to SEQ ID NO:255, andis most preferably TPVWFD (SEQ ID NO:222) or TPAWFD (SEQ ID NO:223).

The maximum theoretical diversity of the combined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library investigated here was >10 million different sequences. Thelibraries of genes encoding this combinatorial library of random cyclicoligopeptides were constructed using degenerate codons. The inventorsconstructed the high diversity pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vector librarywhich is expected to be encoding the vast majority of the theoreticallypossible designed cyclic tetra-, penta-, and hexapeptidecyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ sequences using molecular biology techniques alreadyknown and used in the art.

The invention provided herein can be used as a method of treatment,prevention or diagnosis of all diseases related to protein misfoldingand aggregation, including but not limited to amyotrophic lateralsclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington'sdisease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, type 2 diabetes, familialamyloidotic polyneuropathy, systemic amyloidosis, and transmissiblespongiform encephalopathy comprising administering to a subject atherapeutically effective amount of a peptide. Preferably the inventionpresented herein can be used as a method of treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease.

To identify cyclic oligopeptide sequences with the ability to interferewith the problematic folding of Aβ and modulate itsoligomerization/aggregation, a bacterial high-throughput genetic screenwas utilized. This system monitors Aβ misfolding and aggregation bymeasuring the fluorescence of E. coli cells overexpressing a chimericfusion of the human Aβ₄₂ with GFP. It has been demonstrated previouslythat due to the high aggregation propensity of Aβ, E. coli cellsoverexpressing Aβ-GFP fusions produce misfolded fusion protein thataccumulates into insoluble inclusion bodies that lack fluorescence,despite the fact that they express these fusions at high levels.Mutations in the coding sequence of Aβ or the addition of compounds thatinhibit Aβ aggregation, however, result in the formation of soluble andfluorescent Aβ-GFP, and bacterial cells expressing Aβ-GFP under theseconditions acquire a fluorescent phenotype. The inventors of the presentinvention adapted this system to perform screening foraggregation-inhibitory macrocycles in a very high-throughput fashion byisolating cyclic oligopeptide-producing bacterial clones that exhibitenhanced levels of Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence using fluorescence-activatedcell sorting (FACS).

Herein, the inventors describe that the integrated bacterial platformfor the discovery of macrocyclic rescuers that modulate the problematicfolding and aggregation of Aβ as described in the present invention, isalso generalizable, i.e., it can be more generally applied for thediscovery of macrocyclic peptide rescuers of the misfolding of otherdisease-associated, misfolding-prone proteins (MisPs) as well. Todemonstrate this generalizability, the inventors have used the samesystem to discover macrocyclic peptides that modulate the problematicfolding and aggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.

It has been demonstrated previously that the fluorescence of E. colicells expressing a recombinant protein whose C terminus is fused to GFPcorrelates well with the amount of soluble and folded protein (Waldo GS, Standish B M, Berendzen J, Terwilliger T C. Nat Biotechnol. 1999July; 17(7):691-5). Based on this, it was reasoned that the fluorescenceof MisP-GFP fusions can serve as a reliable reporter for theidentification of chemical rescuers of MisP misfolding for a number ofdisease-associated MisPs, including SOD1. In order to test thishypothesis, the inventors generated fusions of SOD1 variants, whosemisfolding and aggregation have been linked with the pathology offamilial forms of ALS (fALS), with GFP. Expression of these fusions inE. coli, yielded levels of cellular fluorescence, which weresignificantly decreased compared to that of the generallynon-pathogenic, wild-type SOD1. Western blot analysis indicated thatthis occurs because the accumulation of soluble SOD1-GFP is decreased inthe presence of misfolding-inducing amino acid substitutions, which inturn takes place due to enhanced misfolding/aggregation of fusion-freeSOD1. Thus, as in the case of Aβ, the fluorescence of E. coli cellsoverexpressing SOD1-GFP fusions appears to be a good indicator of SOD1folding and misfolding.

To identify rescuers of disease-associated SOD1 misfolding, theinventors screened for cyclic oligopeptides that inhibit the aggregationof SOD1(A4V), a fALS-associated variant, whose misfolding andaggregation causes a very aggressive form of the disease with an averagesurvival time of only 1.2 years after diagnosis.

E. coli BL21(DE3) cells producing the combined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library, while simultaneously overexpressing the SOD1(A4V)-GFP reporter,were subjected to FACS sorting for the isolation of clones exhibitingenhanced SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence. This selection yielded an E. colipopulation with ˜10-fold increased fluorescence after four rounds ofsorting. Among twenty individual clones tested, four exhibited thehighest levels of SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence compared to cellsexpressing the same SOD1(A4V)-GFP fusion in the presence of randomcyclic peptide sequences picked from the initial (unselected)cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library and were selected for further analyses.Furthermore, the observed phenotypic effects were dependent on theability of the Ssp DnaE intein (utilized for peptide cyclization as partof SICLOPPS) to perform protein splicing, as the double amino acidsubstitution H24L/F26A in the C-terminal half of the Ssp DnaE intein,which is known to abolish asparagine cyclization at the I_(C)/exteinjunction, and prevent extein splicing and peptide cyclization, was foundto reduce SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence back to wild-type levels. Finally,the observed increases in fluorescence were found to be SOD1-specific,as the isolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors from these selected clonesdid not enhance the levels of cellular green fluorescence when thesequence of SOD1(A4V) in the SOD1(A4V)-GFP reporter was replaced withthat of the human β-amyloid peptide (Aβ). On the contrary, the selectedpSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors were efficient in enhancing thefluorescence of SOD1-GFP containing wild-type SOD1, as well as threeadditional SOD1 variants, SOD1(G37R), SOD1(G85R), and SOD1(G93A), all ofwhich are associated with familial forms of ALS. Western blot analysisindicated that this enhanced SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence phenotype occursdue to accumulation of enhanced amounts of soluble SOD1(A4V) in theseclones.

The inventors further analyzed the selected peptides by DNA sequencingof the peptide-encoding regions of the four selected clones. Thisrevealed three distinct putative SOD1(A4V) misfolding-rescuing andaggregation-inhibitory cyclic peptide sequences, all of which encodedcyclic pentapeptides with sequences TASFW, TWSVW, and TFSMW, thusindicating a dominant TXSXW bioactive motif. Interestingly, the Serresidue at position 3, encountered among all selected pentapeptides, wasencoded by two different codons in the selected pSICLOPPS plasmids, thussuggesting that its dominance among the isolated clones was notcoincidental.

As depicted in Examples 4 and 5, the inventors chose the peptidecyclo-TWSVW for further analysis. This cyclic pentapeptide is hereafterreferred to as SOD1C5-4 and was produced in mg quantities by solid-phasesynthesis.

Isolated SOD1(A4V) was utilized to assess the effect of the selectedcyclic pentapeptide SOD1C5-4 on its aggregation process. CD spectroscopyindicated that SOD1C5-4—but not the Aβ-targeting cyclic peptides AβC5-34or AβC5-116—interacts with SOD1(A4V), and that the time-dependentconformational transition that is indicative of SOD1(A4V) aggregation issignificantly delayed in the presence of SOD1C5-4. Moreover, analysis bydynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed that SOD1C5-4 addition resultsin the time-dependent formation of oligomeric/aggregated SOD1(A4V)species with markedly smaller sizes. Detection of large, amyloid-likeSOD1(A4V) aggregates by ThT staining and a filter retardation assayindicated that the formation of such species was dramatically decreasedin the presence of SOD1C5-4. Finally, staining of SOD1(A4V) with theconformation-sensitive dye SYPRO Orange under heat-induced denaturationconditions, suggested that the aggregation-inhibitory action of SOD1C5-4may be occurring due to its ability to decrease the propensity ofSOD1(A4V) to expose hydrophobic surfaces, a feature which has beenproposed to be a molecular determinant of the pathogenesis offALS-associated SOD1 variants. Taken together, these results demonstratethat SOD1C5-4 is an efficient and specific rescuer of SOD1(A4V)misfolding and aggregation.

The protective effects of SOD1C5-4 in mammalian cells were evaluated inhuman embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells transiently expressingSOD1(A4V)-GFP. Cells treated with SOD1C5-4 exhibited higherfluorescence, fewer inclusions comprising aggregated SOD1(A4V)-GFP, andhigher viability compared to untreated cells.

To identify all bioactive cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 modulators containedin the tested cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library and to facilitatestructure-activity analyses of the isolated sequences, To determinestructure-activity relationships for the identified mutantSOD1-targeting cyclic oligopeptides, the sequences of thepeptide-encoding regions from ˜5.3 million clones selected after thefourth round of FACS sorting were determined by deep sequencing. 367distinct oligopeptide sequences appeared more than 50 times among theselected clones and were selected for subsequent analysis, whichrevealed the following. First, pentapeptides were the dominant peptidespecies within the sorted pool, with 197 of the distinct oligopeptidesequences selected corresponding to pentapeptides (54%), 148 tohexapeptides (40%) and 22 corresponding to tetrapeptides (6%). Second,the vast majority of the selected peptides exhibited the cyclo-TXSXWmotif of SOD1C5-4 (˜92% of all selected clones and ˜97% of the selectedpentapeptide-encoding clones. Third, among the selected cyclo-TXSXWpentapeptides, I, N, Q, M, E, H, and K residues were excluded atposition 2, and were preferably S, A, W or F. At position 4, I, N, Q, C,D, E, K and P residues were excluded, and were preferably V, W, F, M, orH. Taken together, these results indicate that the most bioactivemacrocyclic structures against SOD1(A4V) misfolding and aggregation inthe library are cyclic pentapeptides of the cyclo-T(Φ₁,S)S(Φ₂,M,H)Wmotif, where Φ₁ is preferably one of the hydrophobic (Φ) amino acids A,W or F, while Φ₂ is preferably V, W or F.

E. coli BL21(DE3) cells producing the combined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library, while simultaneously overexpressing the Aβ₄₂-GFP reporter, weresubjected to FACS sorting for the isolation of clones exhibitingenhanced Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence. Increase in the mean fluorescence wasmeasured and ten random clones were picked from the sorted population.Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence of the isolated peptide-expressing clones wasfound to be dramatically increased compared to cells expressing the sameAβ₄₂-GFP fusion in the presence of random cyclic peptide sequencespicked from the initial (unselected) cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library.Furthermore, the observed phenotypic effects were dependent on theability of the Ssp DnaE intein (utilized for peptide cyclization as partof SICLOPPS) to perform protein splicing, as the double amino acidsubstitution H24L/F26A in the C-terminal half of the Ssp DnaE intein,which is known to abolish asparagine cyclization at the I_(C)/exteinjunction, and prevent extein splicing and peptide cyclization, was foundto reduce Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence back to wild-type levels. Finally, theobserved increases in fluorescence were found to be Aβ-specific, as theisolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors from these selected clones didnot enhance the levels of cellular green fluorescence when the sequenceof Aβ in the Aβ₄₂-GFP reporter was replaced with that of each one of twounrelated disease-associated MisPs, the DNA-binding (core) domain of thehuman p53 containing a Tyr220Cys substitution (p53C(Y220C)) and anAla4Val substitution of human Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1(A4V)).On the contrary, the selected pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors wereefficient in enhancing the fluorescence of Aβ-GFP containing twoadditional Aβ variants, Aβ₄₀ and the E22G (arctic) variant of Aβ₄₂,which is associated with familial forms of AD.

Analysis of the expressed Aβ₄₂-GFP fusions by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and western blottingrevealed that the bacterial clones expressing the selected cyclicpeptides produce markedly increased levels of soluble Aβ₄₂-GFP comparedto random cyclic peptide sequences. Furthermore, when the same celllysates were analyzed by native PAGE and western blotting, it wasobserved that co-expression of the selected cyclic peptides reduced theaccumulation of higher-order Aβ₄₂-GFP aggregates, which could not enterthe gel, and increased the abundance of species with higherelectrophoretic mobility.

The inventors further analyzed the selected peptides by DNA sequencingof the peptide-encoding regions of ten isolated clones. This revealedeight distinct putative Aβ aggregation-inhibitory cyclic peptidesequences: one corresponded to a hexapeptide (TPVWFD; present twiceamong the sequenced clones) and seven pentapeptides (TAFDR, TAWCR,TTWCR, TTVDR, TTYAR (present twice), TTTAR, and SASPT). Interestingly,the Arg residue at position 5, frequently encountered among the selectedpentapeptides, was encoded by three different codons in the selectedpSICLOPPS plasmids, thus suggesting that its dominance among theisolated clones was not coincidental.

As depicted in Examples 7-10, the inventors chose two cyclicoligopeptide sequences for further analysis. These were cyclo-TAFDR andcyclo-SASPT, hereafter referred to as AβC5-116 and AβC5-34 (Aβ-targetingcyclic 5-peptide number 116 and 34), and were produced by solid-phasesynthesis in mg quantities. To further analyze the results the inventorsof the present invention chose to focus on pentapeptides, as this wasthe type of peptide most frequently present among the ones selected fromthe genetic screen. The inventors decided to further study the sequenceAβC5-116 since the TXXXR motif was particularly dominant among theselected pentapeptides, while AβC5-34 was chosen because it was the onlyselected pentapeptide whose sequence appeared to deviate from thismotif.

Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy was first used to assess the effectof the selected pentapeptides on the aggregation process of Aβ₄₀ andAβ₄₂. Addition of AβC5-116 was found to strongly inhibit the aggregationof Aβ₄₀, which remained at a random coil conformation for extendedperiods of time. The addition of AβC5-34 did not have the same effectand resulted in the appearance of a low-intensity negative peak. Whenthe same solutions were subjected to a ThT dye-binding assay detectingamyloid fibrils, Aβ₄₀ fibril formation was reduced in the presence ofAβC5-116, while it remained unaffected by AβC5-34. In the case of Aβ₄₂,both selected cyclic pentapeptides affected its normal aggregationpathway strongly and stabilized β-sheet-like structures. ThT staining ofthe same samples revealed that the extent of amyloid fibril formationwas greatly reduced in both cases. When the cyclic peptides were addedat a higher ratio, similar CD patterns were observed, however thenegative peaks were much more pronounced and fibril formation wascompletely prevented. The addition of the control cyclic pentapeptideSOD1C5-4 targeting another protein and of randomly selected cycliccontrol peptides did not have any effect on Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ aggregation.Finally, the inventors also performed Transmission electron microscopy(TEM) to verify the above findings. Taken together, these resultsdemonstrate that the selected cyclic oligopeptides interfere with thenormal aggregation process of Aβ.

The protective effects of AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 on Aβ₄₀- and Aβ₄₂-inducedtoxicity were evaluated in primary mouse hippocampal neurons and inglioblastoma cell lines. The addition of AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 was foundto markedly inhibit the neurotoxicity of both Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ in adose-responsive manner. The inventors also studied the effect of AβC5-34and AβC5-116 on the morphology of Aβ-exposed neuronal cells byphase-contrast microscopy.

In the presence of pre-aggregated Aβ, the population of attached cellswas greatly reduced compared to the control, with many detachedrounded-up cells floating in the supernatant, while hallmarks ofdegenerating neurons, such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbings,fragmented neurites and ill-developed axons were obvious in thepreparations. This phenotype was reversed with the addition of theselected cyclic peptides.

To further evaluate the protective effects of the selected cyclicpeptides against Aβ aggregation and toxicity in vivo, the inventorsemployed three established models of AD in the nematode wormCaenorhabditis elegans. The conservation of genetic and metabolicpathways between C. elegans and mammals, in combination with itscompletely characterized nervous and muscular system, its easyvisualization and simple manipulation, has nominated C. elegans as anexcellent model for neurodegenerative diseases including AD, whilechemical screening against Aβ-induced toxicity in C. elegans isincreasingly used in AD drug discovery. A paralysis assay was performedin the C. elegans strain CL4176, where human Aβ₄₂ is expressed in theanimals' body wall muscle cells under the control of a heat-induciblepromoter and Aβ aggregate formation is accompanied by the emergence of aparalysis phenotype. When chemically synthesized AβC5-34 (10 μM) andAβC5-116 (5 μM) were supplied to CL4176 worms, the emergence of thecharacteristic paralysis phenotype upon temperature up-shift wassignificantly decelerated compared to the untreated animals. The strainCL2331, which expresses a Aβ(3-42)-GFP fusion again in its body wallmuscle cells upon temperature up-shift was also used, and treatment witheither one of the selected peptides resulted in a significant reductionof Aβ deposits, which was further shown with biochemical analysis of theaccumulation levels of both total and oligomeric Aβ levels in CL4176animals.

To identify the functionally important residues within the isolatedpeptides, the inventors performed position 1 substitutions with theother two nucleophilic amino acids present in the initial libraries, aswell as alanine scanning mutagenesis at positions 3-5 of the AβC5-34 andAβC5-116 pentapeptides. As judged by the ability of the generatedvariants to enhance the fluorescence of E. coli cells overexpressingAβ₄₂-GFP, AβC5-116 was found to be much more tolerant to substitutionscompared to AβC5-34. All tested sequence alterations within AβC5-34,apart from the SIT substitution, were found to be deleterious for its Aβaggregation-inhibitory. On the contrary, only the initial Thr and theultimate Arg were found to be absolutely necessary for the bioactivityof AβC5-116, whereas residues at positions 3 and 4 could be substitutedby Ala without significant loss of activity.

To identify all bioactive cyclic oligopeptide Aβ modulators contained inthe tested cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library and to facilitatestructure-activity analyses of the isolated sequences, the peptidesequences isolated from the genetic screen were analyzed bynext-generation sequencing. This analysis revealed the following. First,pentapeptides were the dominant peptide species within the sorted pool.Second, the most prevalent motif among the selected pentapeptidesequences were cyclo-TXXXR pentapeptides (˜47% of the selectedpentapeptide-encoding pSICLOPPS plasmids; ˜42% of the unique selectedpentapeptide sequences), in accordance with previous observations. Onthe contrary, only three pentapeptide sequence was found to have highsimilarity with AβC5-34. Third, for the selected peptides correspondingto the cyclo-TXXXR motif, residues at positions 3 and 4 were highlyvariable and included the majority of natural amino acids, with position3 exhibiting the highest diversity. At position 2, Thr, Ala, and Valwere preferred, while aromatic residues (Phe, Trp, Tyr) were completelyexcluded from the selected cyclo-TXXXR peptide pool, in full agreementwith the aforementioned site-directed mutagenesis studies. At the highlyvariable position 3, the complete absence of the negatively chargedamino acids Glu and Asp among the selected sequences was notable. Ingeneral, both negatively (Glu and Asp) and positively charged residues(Lys, His, and Arg) were found to be disfavored among the selectedcyclo-TXXXR sequences at positions 2 and 3. At position 4, Ala, Asp, andTrp were found to be the preferred residues. It is noteworthy, that Lysand Gln residues were practically absent from all positions, while the13 sheet-breaking amino acid Pro that is typically included in designedpeptide-based inhibitors of amyloid aggregation appeared with strikinglylow frequencies. Thus, preferred Aβ modulators are cyclic oligopeptidesequences exhibiting the cyclo-TXXXR motif, where X is any natural aminoacid. More preferred are cyclic oligopeptide sequences exhibiting thecyclo-TΦZFIR motif, where Φ=any amino acid excluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, Kand P; Z is any amino acid excluding E; and Π is any natural amino acidexcluding Q, M, K. Even more preferred are cyclic oligopeptide sequencesexhibiting the cyclo-T(T,A,V)Ψ(A,D,W)R motif, where Ψ is anon-negatively charged amino acid.

The high residue variability observed at position 3 of the selectedTXXXR peptides prompted the inventors to investigate whether AβC5-116could be further minimized. Indeed, production of truncated variants ofAβC5-116, from which Ala2 or Asp4 had been deleted, resulted in arespective two- and three-fold enhancement in the fluorescence ofbacterially expressed Aβ₄₂-GFP. In accordance with this, a total of tendistinct cyclic tetrapeptide sequences belonging to the TXXR motif wereidentified among the selected peptide pool. Taken together, theseresults indicate that the minimal bioactive entity against Aβaggregation among this peptide family is a TXXR cyclic tetrapeptide.

The present invention describes a versatile and generally applicablemethod for identifying macrocyclic chemical rescuers of the misfoldingof misfolding-prone proteins associated with a protein misfoldingdisease (MisP), wherein said MisP is selected from SOD1, β-amyloidpeptide, tau, α-synuclein, polyglutaminated huntingtin, polyglutaminatedataxin-1, polyglutaminated ataxin-2, polyglutaminated ataxin-3, prionprotein, islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin), β2-microglbulin, fragmentsof immunoglobulin light chain, fragments of immunoglobulin heavy chain,serum amyloid A, ABri peptide, ADan peptide, transthyretin,apolipoprotein A1, gelsolin, transthyretin, lysozyme, phenylalaninehydroxylase, apolipoprotein A-I, calcitonin, prolactin, TDP-43, FUS/TLS;insulin, hemoglobin, α1-antitrypsin, p53; or variants thereof.

Preferably the invention presented herein can be used as a method forthe identification of chemical agents for the treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of diseases related to protein misfolding and aggregation,including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease,Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,cancer, phenylketonuria, type II diabetes, senile systemic amyloidosis,familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, familial amyloid cardiomyopathy,leptomeningeal amyloidosis, systemic amyloidosis, familial Britishdementia, familial Danish dementia, light chain amyloidosis, heavy chainamyloidosis, serum amyloid A amyloidosis, lysozyme amyloidosis,dialysis-related amyloidosis, ApoAI amyloidosis, Finnish type familialamyloidosis, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Icelandictype), medullary carcinoma of the thyroid, pituitary prolactinoma,injection-localized amyloidosis, frontotemporal dementia,spinocerebellar ataxia 1, spinocerebellar ataxia 2, spinocerebellarataxia 3, α1-antitrypsin deficiency, sickle-cell anemia, andtransmissible spongiform encephalopathy. Most preferably the inventionpresented herein can be used as a method of treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease.

TABLE 1Sequences and frequency of appearance of the selected cyclo-TXXXR pentapeptidesas determined by high-throughput sequencing of the isolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors after the second round of bacterial sorting forenhanced Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence. Reads/ Reads/ Reads/ SEQ Total TotalTotal Peptide-encoding ID Peptide Number of TXXXR pentapeptide peptidenucleotide NO name Aminoacid sequence reads reads (%) reads (%)reads (%) sequence  47 AβC5-2 T T Y A R 304,753 16.023 7.506 6.727ACCACGTACGCCAGG  48 AβC5-3 T T V D R 214,461 11.276 5.282 4.734ACCACCGTGGACCGG  49 AβC5-5 T T T W R 175,510 9.228 4.323 3.874ACCACGACCTGGAGG  50 AβC5-7 T T L H R 134,018 7.046 3.301 2.958ACCACGCTGCACCGG  51 AβC5-8 T T F A R 96,700 5.084 2.382 2.134ACCACCTTCGCCCGG  52 AβC5-9 T V L D R 89,669 4.715 2.209 1.979ACCGTCTTGGACCGG  53 AβC5-12 T T W A R 65,929 3.466 1.624 1.455ACCACGTGGGCCAGG  54 AβC5-13 T A L D R 62,792 3.301 1.547 1.386ACCGCGCTGGACCGG  55 AβC5-15 T A N V R 47,855 2.516 1.179 1.056ACCGCGAACGTGAGG  56 AβC5-17 T T T A R 40,135 2.110 0.989 0.886ACCACCACGGCCCGG  57 AβC5-18 T T I A R 37,150 1.953 0.915 0.820ACCACCATCGCCCGG  58 AβC5-19 T V W D R 37,091 1.950 0.914 0.819ACCGTGTGGGACCGG  59 AβC5-20 T T I S R 37,044 1.948 0.912 0.818ACCACCATCAGCCGG  60 AβC5-21 T T W C R 36,295 1.908 0.894 0.801ACCACCTGGTGCCGG  61 AβC5-22 T V L W R 35,820 1.883 0.882 0.791ACCGTCCTGTGGAGG  62 AβC5-25 T T L A R 28,989 1.524 0.714 0.640ACCACCTTGGCGAGG  63 AβC5-26 T A W C R 28,391 1.493 0.699 0.627ACCGCGTGGTGCCGC  64 AβC5-27 T T S A R 28,188 1.482 0.694 0.622ACCACGAGCGCCCGC  65 AβC5-29 T T L E R 27,514 1.447 0.678 0.607ACCACCCTCGAGAGG  66 AβC5-30 T S T A R 27,456 1.444 0.676 0.606ACCTCGACGGCGCGG  67 AβC5-35 T V R D R 25,428 1.337 0.626 0.561ACCGTCCGGGACCGG  68 AβC5-41 T G W A R 21,784 1.145 0.537 0.481ACCGGCTGGGCGAGG  69 AβC5-44 T A W A R 20,807 1.094 0.512 0.459ACCGCCTGGGCGAGG  70 AβC5-45 T T W V R 20,798 1.094 0.512 0.459ACCACCTGGGTGCGG  71 AβC5-46 T L L W R 19,957 1.049 0.492 0.440ACCCTATTGTGGCGG  72 AβC5-47 T T I D R 19,735 1.038 0.486 0.436ACCACGATCGACAGG  73 AβC5-50 T A L A R 19,433 1.022 0.479 0.429ACCGCGCTCGCGCGC  74 AβC5-51 T S V D R 19,249 1.012 0.474 0.425ACCAGCGTGGACAGG  75 AβC5-53 T T V W R 18,669 0.982 0.460 0.412ACCACCGTGTGGCGC  76 AβC6-66 T T H W R 14,304 0.752 0.352 0.316ACCACGCACTGGCGG  77 AβC5-67 T A R D R 14,213 0.747 0.350 0.314ACCGCGAGGGACCGG  78 AβC5-73 T T R D R 12,894 0.678 0.318 0.285ACCACGCGGGACCGG  79 AβC5-80 T S V H R 10,181 0.535 0.251 0.225ACCAGCGTGCACCGG  80 AβC5-82 T A V W R 9,781 0.514 0.241 0.216ACCGCCGTCTGGCGG  81 AβC5-83 T T G C R 9,362 0.492 0.231 0.207ACCACGGGGTGCCGG  82 AβC5-89 T A T D R 7,984 0.420 0.197 0.176ACCGCCACCGACAGG  83 AβC5-94 T V L F R 7,442 0.391 0.183 0.164ACCGTCTTGTTCCGC  84 AβC5-102 T T Y N R 6,067 0.319 0.149 0.134ACCACCTACAACCGC  85 AβC5-105 T V R W R 5,450 0.287 0.134 0.120ACCGTGCGCTGGCGC  86 AβC5-116 T A F D R 4,243 0.223 0.105 0.094ACCGCGTTCGACCGG  87 AβC5-117 T T R C R 4,237 0.223 0.104 0.094ACCACGCGGTGCAGG  88 AβC5-118 T T F W R 4,216 0.222 0.104 0.093ACCACCTTCTGGCGG  89 AβC5-121 T I K D R 3,970 0.209 0.098 0.088ACCATCAAGGACCGG  90 AβC5-123 T T V H R 3,371 0.177 0.083 0.074ACCACCGTCCACCGG  91 AβC5-126 T T L L R 3,016 0.159 0.074 0.067ACCACGCTCCTCAGG  92 AβC5-129 T T L F R 2,630 0.138 0.065 0.058ACCACGCTCTTCCGG  93 AβC5-130 T A Y H R 2,594 0.136 0.064 0.057ACCGCGTACCACCGG  94 AβC5-136 T A L H R 2,026 0.107 0.050 0.045ACCGCGTTGCACCGG  95 AβC5-139 T T S P R 1,904 0.100 0.047 0.042ACCACCTCGCCCCGG  96 AβC5-146 T T W S R 1,612 0.085 0.040 0.036ACCACCTGGTCGCGG  97 AβC5-147 T A M H R 1,611 0.085 0.040 0.036ACCGCCATGCACAGG  98 AβC5-155 T S L D R 1,251 0.066 0.031 0.028ACCTCGCTCGACAGG  99 AβC5-158 T T G A R 1,172 0.062 0.029 0.026ACCACGGGGGCGCGC 100 AβC5-162 T S V W R 1,094 0.058 0.027 0.024ACCTCGGTGTGGAGG 101 AβC5-173 T T H A R 953 0.050 0.023 0.021ACCACGCACGCCAGG 102 AβC5-176 T A G W R 945 0.050 0.023 0.021ACCGCGGGCTGGAGG 103 AβC5-177 T A T A R 925 0.049 0.023 0.020ACCGCCACCGCGAGG 104 AβC5-184 T V L A R 818 0.043 0.020 0.018ACCGTGCTCGCGCGG 105 AβC5-185 T T F N R 800 0.042 0.020 0.018ACCACGTTCAACAGG 106 AβC5-188 T G M R R 768 0.040 0.019 0.017ACCGGGATGAGGCGG 107 AβC5-189 T T V A R 757 0.040 0.019 0.017ACCACCGTCGCCAGG 108 AβC5-190 T L C L R 739 0.039 0.018 0.016TGCTTGCGCACGCTG 109 AβC5-192 T G L A R 720 0.038 0.018 0.016ACCGGGCTGGCGCGG 110 AβC5-198 T S W C R 679 0.036 0.017 0.015ACCAGCTGGTGCAGG 111 AβC5-209 T T R A R 580 0.030 0.014 0.013ACCACCAGGGCGCGG 112 AβC5-215 T T P W R 524 0.028 0.013 0.012ACCACGCCCTGGAGG 113 AβC5-218 T V L H R 497 0.026 0.012 0.011ACCGTCTTGCACAGG 114 AβC5-223 T G L D R 464 0.024 0.011 0.010ACCGGCCTCGACAGG 115 AβC5-230 T T S D R 442 0.023 0.011 0.010ACCACGTCGGACCGG 116 AβC5-239 T T M H R 384 0.020 0.009 0.008ACCACGATGCACCGC 117 AβC5-242 T T S T R 376 0.020 0.009 0.008ACCACCTCGACCCGG 118 AβC5-244 T T R V R 366 0.019 0.009 0.008ACCACGCGCGTGAGG 119 AβC5-245 T T R F R 364 0.019 0.009 0.008ACCACCCGGTTCCGG 120 AβC5-248 T T T H R 339 0.018 0.008 0.007ACCACGACGCACCGG 121 AβC5-250 T H A W R 334 0.018 0.008 0.007ACCCACGCCTGGAGG 122 AβC5-252 T V I W R 331 0.017 0.008 0.007ACCGTGATCTGGCGC 123 AβC5-253 T T W F R 327 0.017 0.008 0.007ACCACGTGGTTCCGG 124 AβC5-255 T T S R R 325 0.017 0.008 0.007ACCACCTCGAGACGG 125 AβC5-258 T T S C R 301 0.016 0.007 0.007ACCACGTCGTGCCGG 126 AβC5-260 T T W T R 295 0.016 0.007 0.007ACCACCTGGACCCGG 127 AβC5-262 T T S S R 286 0.015 0.007 0.006ACCACCTCGAGCCGG 128 AβC5-263 T H L A R 284 0.015 0.007 0.006ACCCACCTCGCCCGG 129 AβC5-264 T S G A R 282 0.015 0.007 0.006ACCAGCGGGGCCCGG 130 AβC5-266 T T L R R 274 0.014 0.007 0.006ACCACGCTGCGCCGG 131 AβC5-270 T A T W R 266 0.014 0.007 0.006ACCGCGACCTGGAGG 132 AβC5-272 T C M W R 254 0.013 0.006 0.006ACCTGCATGTGGCGC 133 AβC5-275 T A H V R 249 0.013 0.006 0.005ACCGCGCACGTGCGC 134 AβC5-276 T S W A R 249 0.013 0.006 0.005ACCTCGTGGGCGCGG 135 AβC5-278 T T W L R 241 0.013 0.006 0.005ACCACGTGGCTCAGG 136 AβC5-291 T T L D R 213 0.011 0.005 0.005ACCACCCTGGACCGG 137 AβC5-294 T T P H R 207 0.011 0.005 0.005ACCACGCCTCACCGG 138 AβC5-298 T T R G R 201 0.011 0.005 0.004ACCACCCGTGGCCGG 139 AβC5-299 T T V G R 200 0.011 0.005 0.004ACCACCGTGGGCCGG 140 AβC5-301 T T T R R 191 0.010 0.005 0.004ACCACGACGCGCCGC 141 AβC5-304 T S I N R 182 0.010 0.004 0.004ACCTCGATCAACAGG 142 AβC5-305 T T A D R 181 0.010 0.004 0.004ACCACCGCGGACCGG 143 AβC5-315 T T S E R 158 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCACCTCCGAGAGG 144 AβC5-316 T T C A R 157 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCACGTGCGCCAGG 145 AβC5-317 T T A W R 156 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCACGGCCTGGAGG 146 AβC5-320 T T V E R 150 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCACCGTCGAGCGG 147 AβC5-321 T T T F R 148 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCACGACGTTCAGG 148 AβC5-323 T A V D R 147 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCGCCGTGGACCGG 149 AβC5-325 T V W I R 144 0.008 0.004 0.003ACCGTGTGGATCAGG 150 AβC5-329 T T V R R 141 0.007 0.003 0.003ACCACCGTACGCAGG 151 AβC5-333 T H V R R 137 0.007 0.003 0.003ACCCACGTACGCAGG 152 AβC5-343 T N L D R 125 0.007 0.003 0.003ACCAACCTGGACCGG 153 AβC5-344 T T P G R 125 0.007 0.003 0.003ACCACGCCTGGACGG 154 AβC5-348 T T L T R 119 0.006 0.003 0.003ACCACGCTCACCCGG 155 AβC5-355 T A T V R 115 0.006 0.003 0.003ACCGCGACGGTGCGC 156 AβC5-359 T A M W R 110 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCGCCATGTGGCGG 157 AβC5-361 T T K W R 108 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCACGAAGTGGAGG 158 AβC5-362 T T W D R 107 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCACCTGGGACCGG 159 AβC5-364 T T M A R 106 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCACCATGGCCCGG 160 AβC5-365 T T G G R 106 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCACCGGTGGCCGG 161 AβC5-366 T T M V R 105 0.006 0.003 0.002ACCACGATGGTGCGG 162 AβC5-375 T N L A R 97 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCAACCTCGCCCGG 163 AβC5-376 T I R D R 96 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCATCAGGGACCGG 164 AβC5-378 T T T G R 96 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGACTGGTAGG 165 AβC5-379 T R L G R 95 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCCGTCTTGGCAGG 166 AβC5-381 T T H T R 93 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGCACACCAGG 167 AβC5-382 T T I T R 92 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACCATCACCCGG 168 AβC5-384 T T Y T R 90 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGTACACCAGG 169 AβC5-385 T T L Y R 90 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGCTGTACCGG 170 AβC5-389 T H L D R 89 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCCACCTGGACCGG 171 AβC5-391 T L L I R 88 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCTTGTTGATCAGG 172 AβC5-392 T T C D R 87 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGTGCGACCGG 173 AβC5-393 T T G R R 87 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACGGGTCGCCGG 174 AβC5-394 T T V S R 86 0.005 0.002 0.002ACCACCGTGAGCCGG 175 AβC5-395 T T Q H R 85 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACGCAGCACCGG 176 AβC5-396 T T T P R 84 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACTACGCCCAGG 177 AβC5-399 T A F A R 82 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCGCCTTCGCCCGG 178 AβC5-405 T T S H R 78 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACGTCACACCGG 179 AβC5-410 T V L G R 76 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCGTCTTGGGCCGG 180 AβC5-411 T T Q R R 75 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACGCAGCGCAGG 181 AβC5-413 T S H A R 74 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCAGTCACGCCAGG 182 AβC5-415 T T T C R 74 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACGACGTGCCGG 183 AβC5-422 T A W R R 72 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCGCGTGGCGCCGC 184 AβC5-428 T T C G R 69 0.004 0.002 0.002ACCACGTGTGGCCGG 185 AβC5-434 T T S G R 65 0.003 0.002 0.001ACCACCTCTGGCCGG 186 AβC5-438 I T T S R 62 0.003 0.002 0.001ACCACGACGTCGAGG 187 AβC5-440 T A T G R 61 0.003 0.002 0.001ACCGCGACTGGACGG 188 AβC5-441 T A W D R 61 0.003 0.002 0.001ACCGCGTGGGACCGG 189 AβC5-443 T T H H R 60 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACGCATCACCGG 190 AβC5-448 T A Y A R 58 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCGCGTACGCCAGG 191 AβC5-449 T A N A R 58 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCGCGAACGCGAGG 192 AβC5-450 T R D V R 58 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCCGCGACGTGAGG 193 AβC5-452 T H V D R 58 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCCACGTCGACAGG 194 AβC5-453 T L F W R 57 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCCTATTCTGGCGG 195 AβC5-459 T T A A R 55 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACCGCGGCCCGG 196 AβC5-463 T V V D R 54 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCGTCGTGGACCGG 197 AβC5-464 T T P A R 54 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACTCCGGCCCGG 198 AβC5-469 T T I G R 53 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACGATCGGCAGG 199 AβC5-472 T M Y A R 51 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCATGTACGCCAGG 200 AβC5-473 T H V A R 51 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCCACGTGGCCAGG 201 AβC5-474 T T W P R 51 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACCTGGCCGCGG 202 AβC5-475 T T G D R 51 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACCGGTGACCGG 203 AβC5-479 T T T V R 50 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCACGACCGTGCGG 204 AβC5-481 T V F G R 50 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCGTCTTTGGCAGG 205 AβC5-483 T R V G R 50 0.003 0.001 0.001ACCCGTGTGGGCCGG Sum 1,901,945 100.000 46.847 41.980

TABLE 2 Sequences and frequency of appearance of the selected cyclicpentapeptides resembling AβC5-34 as determined by high-throughputsequencing of the isolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors after thesecond round of bacterial sorting for enhanced Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence.Reads/ Reads/ Reads/ Total Total Total SEQ Peptide Amino acid Number ofSASPT-like pentapeptide peptide ID NO name sequence reads reads (%)reads (%) reads (%) 206 AβC5-34 S A S P T 25673 97.349 0.632 0.567 207AβC5-216 S I C P T 516 1.957 0.013 0.011 208 AβC5-380 S I T P T 94 0.3560.002 0.002 209 AβC5-387 S H S P T 89 0.337 0.002 0.002 Sum 26,372 1000.645 0.578

TABLE 3 Sequences and frequency of appearance of the selected cyclo-TXXRtetrapeptides as determined by high-throughput sequencing ofthe isolated pSICLOPPS-Nu X₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors for enchancedAβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence. SEQ CYCLIC Normalized ID PEPTIDE PEPTIDEPeptide-encoding read number NO. NAME SEQUENCE nucleotide sequence (%)210 AβC4-9 TTCR ACCACGTGCCGG 1.247884 211 AβC4-11 TTRR ACCACTCGCCGG1.199516 212 AβC4-31 TTSR ACCACGTCGCGG 0.324063 213 AβC4-34 TRGRACACGTGGACGG 0.304716 214 AβC4-35 TTGR ACCACTGGCCGG 0.295042 215 AβC4-41TRRR ACACGTCGCAGG 0.246675 216 AβC4B-9 TDQR ACCGACCAGCGG 2.090359 217AβC4B-41 TLIR ACCCTGATCCGC 0.774951 218 AβC4B-80 TLWR ACCCTGTGGCGG0.256828 219 AβC4B-86 TLGR ACCTTGGGCCGG 0.16973 220 AβC5(ΔA2) TFDRACCTTCGACCGG — 221 AβC5(ΔD4) TAFR ACCGCGTTCCGG —

TABLE 4Sequences and frequency of appearance of the selected cyclic hexapeptides asdetermined by high-throughput sequencing of the isolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors after the second round of bacterial sortingfor enhanced Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence. Reads/ Reads/ SEQ Number Total TotalID Peptide of hexapeptide peptide Peptide-encoding NO nameAminoacid sequence reads reads (%) reads (%) nucleotide sequence 222AβC6-1 T P V W F D 131,935 29.151 2.912 ACCCCGGTCTGGTTCGAC 223 AβC6-2 TP A W F D 111,132 24.555 2.453 ACCCCGGCCTGGTTCGAC 224 AβC6-4 T L E F F D27,057 5.978 0.597 ACCTTGGAGTTCTTCGAC 225 AβC6-6 T V T W F D 17,1003.778 0.377 ACCGTCACGTGGTTCGAC 226 AβC6-8 T L L I R W 13,135 2.902 0.290ACCTTGTTGATCAGGTGG 227 AβC6-10 T L K W L N 11,016 2.434 0.243ACCCTCAAGTGGCTGAAC 228 AβC6-21 T K E Y F D 1,231 0.272 0.027ACCAAGGAGTACTTCGAC 229 AβC6-26 T L H W F E 647 0.143 0.014ACCCTCCACTGGTTCGAG 230 AβC6-27 T C S W F D 623 0.138 0.014ACCTGCTCGTGGTTCGAC 231 AβC6-28 T L E Y F M 556 0.123 0.012ACCCTCGAGTACTTCATG 232 AβC6-32 T L C W L N 455 0.101 0.010ACCCTGTGCTGGCTCAAC 233 AβC6-36 T P I V F D 384 0.085 0.008ACCCCGATCGTGTTCGAC 234 AβC6-37 T L W V F D 355 0.078 0.008ACCCTGIGGGICTTCGAC 235 AβC6-40 T P L W F N 316 0.070 0.007ACCCCCTTGTGGTTCAAC 236 AβC6-41 T S V E Y E 307 0.068 0.007ACCTCGGTCGAGTACGAG 237 AβC6-42 T L G W L D 307 0.068 0.007ACCCTGGGCTGGTTGGAC 238 AβC6-44 T P P W F D 289 0.064 0.006ACCCCGCCCTGGTTCGAC 239 AβC6-46 T P C W F D 252 0.056 0.006ACCCCGTGCTGGTTCGAC 240 AβC6-47 T L S W Y D 239 0.053 0.005ACCTTGTCCTGGTACGAC 241 AβC6-48 T P V L V D 236 0.052 0.005ACCCCGGTCCTGGTCGAC 242 AβC6-49 T L E Y L W 233 0.051 0.005ACCCTCGAGTACTTGIGG 243 AβC6-50 T I F W F D 227 0.050 0.005ACCATCTTCTGGTTCGAC 244 AβC6-53 T P A L V D 208 0.046 0.005ACCCCGGCCCTGGTCGAC 245 AβC6-55 T P G W F D 180 0.040 0.004ACCCCCGGCTGGTTCGAC 246 AβC6-57 T L S V F D 176 0.039 0.004ACCTTGTCCGTCTTCGAC 247 AβC6-58 T P G L V D 142 0.031 0.003ACCCCCGGTCTGGTCGAC 248 AβC6-59 T L S W F N 141 0.031 0.003ACCCTCTCCTGGTTCAAC 249 AβC6-63 T L D F F D 114 0.025 0.003ACCTTGGACTTCTTCGAC 250 AβC6-65 T P S W F D 105 0.023 0.002ACCCCGTCCTGGTTCGAC 251 AβC6-68 T P A L F D 101 0.022 0.002ACCCCGGCCCTGTTCGAC 252 AβC6-69 T P A W S D 86 0.019 0.002ACCCCGGCCTGGTCCGAC 253 AβC6-78 T P A R F D 55 0.012 0.001ACCCCGGCCCGGTTCGAC 254 AβC6-79 T P A W L D 55 0.012 0.001ACCCCGGCCTGGCTCGAC 255 AβC6-80 T P V W L D 55 0.012 0.001ACCCCGGTCTGGCTCGAC Sum 319,553 70.606 7.053

III. Peptide Modifications

Peptides and polypeptides of the invention include those correspondingto linearized versions of the described cyclic oligopeptide SOD1modulators, i.e., sequences where a break in the amino acid backbonechain of a described cyclic oligopeptide modulator has been introducedand which thereafter contains a free N-terminal NH₂ amino group and afree C-terminal —COOH carboxyl group. For example, for the cyclicpentapeptide SOD1 modulator SOD1C5-4 with amino acid sequencecyclo-TWSVW (SEQ ID NO: 4), a preferred peptide SOD1 modulator of thepresent invention is also a linearized version of SOD1C5-4, namely theoligopeptide NH₂-TWSVW-COOH. In addition, since the herein describedoligopeptide SOD1 modulators are cyclic in nature, they do not possess a“starting point” (e.g. N terminus) or “end point” (e.g. C terminus).Thus, all circular permutants, e.g., linear variants resulting fromcleavage of an existing peptide bond to introduce new termini elsewherein the peptide sequence, of the described cyclic oligopeptide SOD1modulators are also preferred cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 modulators of thepresent invention. For example, for the cyclic pentapeptide SOD1modulator SOD1C5-4 with amino acid sequence cyclo-TWSVW (SEQ ID NO: 4),preferred peptide SOD1 modulators of the present invention are also allequivalent circular permutants of SOD1C5-4, namely the oligopeptidescyclo-WSVWT, cyclo-SVWTW, cyclo-VWTWS, and cyclo-WTWSV. Similarly,preferred peptide SOD1 modulators of the present invention are thelinearized versions of all described cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 modulatorsand of all of their equivalent circular permutants. For example, forSOD1C5-4, apart from the modification mentioned above, preferred peptideSOD1 modulator of the present invention are linearized versions of allcircular permutants equivalent SOD1C5-4, namely the oligopeptidesNH₂-WSVWT-COOH, NH₂-SVWTW-COOH, NH₂-VWTWS-COOH, and NH₂-WTWSV-COOH.

Similarly, for the cyclic pentapeptide Aβ modulator AβC5-116 with aminoacid sequence cyclo-TAFDR (SEQ ID NO: 86), a preferred peptide Aβmodulator of the present invention is also a linearized version ofAβC5-116, namely the oligopeptide NH₂-TAFDR-COOH. In addition, since theherein described oligopeptide Aβ modulators are cyclic in nature, theydo not possess a “starting point” (e.g. N terminus) or “end point” (e.g.C terminus). Thus, all circular permutants, e.g., linear variantsresulting from cleavage of an existing peptide bond to introduce newtermini elsewhere in the peptide sequence, of the described cyclicoligopeptide Aβ modulators are also preferred cyclic oligopeptide Aβmodulators of the present invention. For example, for the cyclicpentapeptide Aβ modulator AβC5-116 with amino acid sequence cyclo-TAFDR(SEQ ID NO: 86), preferred peptide Aβ modulators of the presentinvention are also all equivalent circular permutants of AβC5-116,namely the oligopeptides cyclo-AFDRT, cyclo-FDRTA and NH₂-FDRTA-COOH,cyclo-DRTAF, and cyclo-RTAFD.

Similarly, preferred peptide Aβ modulators of the present invention arethe linearized versions of all described cyclic oligopeptide Aβmodulators and of all of their equivalent circular permutants. Forexample, for AβC5-116, apart from the modification mentioned above,preferred peptide Aβ modulator of the present invention are linearizedversions of all circular permutants equivalent AβC5-116, namely theoligopeptides NH₂-AFDRT-COOH, NH₂-FDRTA-COOH, NH₂-DRTAF-COOH, andNH₂-RTAFD-COOH.

Peptides and polypeptides of the invention include those containingconservative amino acid substitutions. Such peptides and polypeptidesare encompassed by the invention provided the peptide or polypeptide canbind to SOD1 or Aβ. As used herein, suitable conservative substitutionsof amino acids are known to those of skill in this art and can be madegenerally without altering the biological activity of the resultingmolecule. Those of skill in this art recognize that, in general, singleamino acid substitutions in non-essential regions of a polypeptide donot substantially alter biological activity (see, e.g., Watson et al.Molecular Biology of the Gene, 4th Edition, 1987, The Benjamin/CummingsPub. co., p. 224). Such substitutions can be made in accordance withthose set forth as follows: Ala (A) Gly; Ser Arg (R) Lys Asn (N) Gln;His Cys (C) Ser Gln (Q) Asn Glu (E) Asp Gly (G) Ala; Pro His (H) Asn;Gln Ile (I) Leu; Val Leu (L.) Ile; Val Lys (K) Arg; Gln; Glu Met (N)Leu; Tyr; Ile Phe (F) Met; Leu; Tyr Ser (S) Thr Thr (T) Ser Trp (W) TyrTyr (Y) Trp; Phe Val (V) Ile; Leu. Other substitutions also arepermissible and can be determined empirically or in accord with knownconservative substitutions.

The peptidic compounds of the present invention can inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation, wherein said peptidic compounds can be ahead-to-tail cyclic peptide, side-chain-to-tail cyclic peptide, bicyclicpeptide, lanthipeptide, linaridin, proteusin, cyanobactin, thiopeptide,bottromycin, microcin, lasso peptide, microviridin, amatoxin,phallotoxin, θ-defensin, orbitide, or cyclotide.

The peptidic compounds of the present invention also serve as structuralmodels for non-peptidic molecules or “mimetics” with similar biologicalactivity. One can also readily modify peptides by phosphorylation, andother methods for making peptide derivatives of the compounds of thepresent invention are described in Hruby, et al. Biochm. J. 268(2):249-262, 1990, incorporated herewith by reference. Thus, the peptidecompounds of the invention also serve as structural models fornon-peptidic compounds with similar biological activity. Those of skillin the art recognize that a variety of techniques are available forconstructing compounds with the same or similar desired biologicalactivity as the lead peptide compound but with more favorable activitythan the lead with respect to solubility, stability, and susceptibilityto hydrolysis and proteolysis. See Morgan and Gainor, Ann. Rep. Med.Chem. 24:243-252, 1989, incorporated herein by reference. Thesetechniques include replacing the peptide backbone with a backbonecomposed of phosphonates, amidates, carbamates, sulfonamides, andsecondary amines.

The term mimetic, and in particular, peptidomimetic, is intended toinclude isosteres. The term “isostere” as used herein is intended toinclude a chemical structure that can be substituted for a secondchemical structure because the steric conformation of the firststructure fits a binding site specific for the second structure. Theterm specifically includes peptide backbone modifications (i.e., amidebond mimetics) well known to those skilled in the art. Suchmodifications include modifications of the amide nitrogen, the α-carbon,amide carbonyl, complete replacement of the amide bond, extensions,deletions or backbone crosslinks. Several peptide backbone modificationsare known, including ψ[CH2S], ψ[CH2NH], ψ[CSNH2], ψ[NHCO], ψ[COCH2], andψ[(E) or (Z) CH═CH]. In the nomenclature used above, w indicates theabsence of an amide bond. The structure that replaces the amide group isspecified within the brackets. Other examples of isosteres includepeptides substituted with one or more benzodiazepine molecules (seee.g., James, G. L. et al. (1993) Science 260:1937-1942).

Other possible modifications include an N-alkyl (or aryl) substitution(ψ[CONR]), backbone crosslinking to construct lactams and other cyclicstructures, substitution of all D-amino acids for all L-amino acidsWithin the compound (“inverso” compounds) or retro-inverso amino acidincorporation (ψ[NHCO]). By “inverso” is meant replacing L-amino acidsof a sequence With D-amino acids, and by “retro-inverso” or“enantio-retro” is meant reversing the sequence of the amino acids(“retro”) and replacing the L-amino acids With D-amino acids. Forexample, if the parent peptide is Thr-Ala-Tyr, the retro modified formis Tyr-Ala-Thr, the inverso form is thr-ala-tyr, and the retro inversoform is tyr-ala-thr (lower case letters refer to D-amino acids).Compared to the parent peptide, a retro-inverso peptide has a reversedbackbone while retaining substantially the original spatial conformationof the side chains, resulting in a retro-inverso isomer with a topologythat closely resembles the parent peptide. See Goodman et al.“Perspectives in Peptide Chemistry” pp. 283-294 (1981). See also U.S.Pat. No. 4,522,752 by Sisto for further description of “retro-inverso”peptides.

Preferably, the modulator compound inhibits aggregation of SOD1 ornatural β-amyloid peptides when contacted with SOD1 or the naturalβ-amyloid peptides, and/or inhibits SOD1 or Aβ neurotoxicity.Alternatively, the modulator compound can promote aggregation of SOD1 ornatural β-amyloid peptides when contacted with the SOD1 or naturalβ-amyloid peptides. The type and number of modifying groups coupled tothe modulator are selected such that the compound alters (and preferablyinhibits) aggregation of SOD1 or natural β-amyloid peptides whencontacted with SOD1 or the natural β-amyloid peptides. A singlemodifying group can be coupled to the modulator or, alternatively,multiple modifying groups can be coupled to the modulator.

Within a modulator compound of the invention, a peptidic structure (suchas a cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 or Aβ modulator or an amino acid sequencecorresponding to a rearranged or modified cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 or Aβmodulator) is coupled directly or indirectly to at least one modifyinggroup. The term “modifying group” is intended to include structures thatare directly attached to the peptidic structure (e.g., by covalentcoupling), as well as those that are indirectly attached to the peptidicstructure (e.g., by a stable non-covalent association or by covalentcoupling to additional amino acid residues, or mimetics, analogues orderivatives thereof, which may flank the cyclic oligopeptide SOD1 or Aβmodulator). For example, the modifying group can be coupled to a sidechain of at least one amino acid residue of a cyclic oligopeptide SOD1or Aβ modulator, or to a peptidic or peptidomimetic region flanking thecyclic oligopeptide SOD1 or Aβ modulator (e.g., through the epsilonamino group of a lysyl residue(s), through the carboxyl group of anaspartic acid residue(s) or a glutamic acid residue(s), through ahydroxy group of a tyrosyl residue(s), a serine residue(s) or athreonine residue(s) or other suitable reactive group on an amino acidside chain). Modifying groups covalently coupled to the peptidicstructure can be attached by means and using methods well known in theart for linking chemical structures, including, for example, amide,alkylamino, carbamate or urea bonds.

The modifying group(s) is selected such that the modulator compoundalters, and preferably inhibits, SOD1 or β-amyloid peptides aggregationwhen contacted with SOD1 or the β-amyloid peptides or inhibits theneurotoxicity of SOD1 or the β-amyloid peptides when contacted by them.Although not intending to be limited by mechanism, the modifyinggroup(s) of the modulator compounds of the invention is thought tofunction as a key pharmacophore which is important for conferring on themodulator the ability to disrupt SOD1 or Aβ aggregation.

In one embodiment, the modifying group is a “biotinyl structure”, whichincludes biotinyl groups and analogues and derivatives thereof (such asa 2-iminobiotinyl group). In another embodiment, the modifying group cancomprise a “fluorescein-containing group”, such as a group derived fromreacting a SOD1- or an Aβ-derived peptidic structure with 5-(and6-)-carboxyfluorescein, succinimidyl ester or fluoresceinisothiocyanate. In various other embodiments, the modifying group(s) cancomprise an N-acetylneuraminyl group, a trans-4-cotininecarboxyl group,a 2-imino-1-imidazolidineacetyl group, an (S)-(−)-indoline-2-carboxylgroup, a (−)-menthoxyacetyl group, a 2-norbornaneacetyl group, aγ-oxo-5-acenaphthenebutyryl, a (−)-2-oxo-4-thiazolidinecarboxyl group, atetrahydro-3-furoyl group, a 2-iminobiotinyl group, adiethylenetriaminepentaacetyl group, a 4-morpholinecarbonyl group, a2-thiopheneacetyl group or a 2-thiophenesulfonyl group.

Preferred modifying groups include groups comprising cholyl structures,biotinyl structures, fluorescein-containing groups, adiethylene-triaminepentaacetyl group, a (−)-menthoxyacetyl group, and aN-acetylneuraminyl group. More preferred modifying groups thosecomprising a cholyl structure or an iminiobiotinyl group. Yet anothertype of modifying group is a compound that contains a non-natural aminoacid.

SOD1 or β-amyloid modulator compounds of the invention can be furthermodified to alter the specific properties of the compound whileretaining the ability of the compound to alter SOD1 or Aβ aggregationand inhibit SOD1 or Aβ neurotoxicity. For example, in one embodiment,the compound is further modified to alter a pharmacokinetic property ofthe compound, such as in vivo stability or half-life. In anotherembodiment, the compound is further modified to label the compound witha detectable substance. In yet another embodiment, the compound isfurther modified to couple the compound to an additional therapeuticmoiety. To further chemically modify the compound, such as to alter thepharmacokinetic properties of the compound, reactive groups can bederivatized.

A modulator compound can be further modified to label the compound byreacting the compound with a detectable substance. Suitable detectablesubstances include various enzymes, prosthetic groups, fluorescentmaterials, luminescent materials and radioactive materials. Examples ofsuitable enzymes include horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase,β-galactosidase, or acetylcholinesterase; examples of suitableprosthetic group complexes include streptavidin/biotin andavidin/biotin; examples of suitable fluorescent materials includeumbelliferone, fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine,dichlorotriazinylamine fluorescein, dansyl chloride or phycoerythrin; anexample of a luminescent material includes luminol; and examples ofsuitable radioactive material include ¹⁴C, ¹²³I, ¹²⁴I, ¹²⁵I, ¹³¹I,^(99m)Tc, ³⁵S or ³H. In a preferred embodiment, a modulator compound isradioactively labeled with ¹⁴C, either by incorporation of ¹⁴C into themodifying group or one or more amino acid structures in the modulatorcompound. Labeled modulator compounds can be used to assess the in vivopharmacokinetics of the compounds, as well as to detect SOD1 or Aβaggregation, for example for diagnostic purposes. SOD1 or Aβ aggregationcan be detected using a labeled modulator compound either in vivo or inan in vitro sample derived from a subject.

Preferably, for use as an in vivo diagnostic agent, a modulator compoundof the invention is labeled with radioactive technetium or iodine.Accordingly, in one embodiment, the invention provides a modulatorcompound labeled with technetium, preferably ^(99m)Tc. Methods forlabeling peptide compounds with technetium are known in the art (seee.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,443,815, 5,225,180 and 5,405,597, all by Dean etal.; Stepniak-Biniakiewicz, D., et al. (1992) J. Med. Chem. 35:274-279;Fritzberg, A. R., et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:4025-4029;Baidoo, K. E., et al. (1990) Cancer Res. Suppl. 50:799s-803s; and Regan,L. and Smith, C. K. (1995) Science 270:980-982).

Furthermore, an additional modification of a modulator compound of theinvention can serve to confer an additional therapeutic property on thecompound. That is, the additional chemical modification can comprise anadditional functional moiety. For example, a functional moiety whichserves to break down or dissolve amyloid plaques can be coupled to themodulator compound. In this form, the modified modulator serves totarget the compound to SOD1 or Aβ peptides and disrupt theirpolymerization, whereas the additional functional moiety serves to breakdown or dissolve SOD1 aggregates or amyloid plaques after the compoundhas been targeted to these sites.

In an alternative chemical modification, a SOD1 or β-amyloid compound ofthe invention is prepared in a “prodrug” form, wherein the compounditself does not modulate aggregation, but rather is capable of beingtransformed, upon metabolism in vivo, into a SOD1 or β-amyloid modulatorcompound as defined herein. For example, in this type of compound, themodulating group can be present in a prodrug form that is capable ofbeing converted upon metabolism into the form of an active modulatinggroup. Such a prodrug form of a modifying group is referred to herein asa “secondary modifying group.” A variety of strategies are known in theart for preparing peptide prodrugs that limit metabolism in order tooptimize delivery of the active form of the peptide-based drug (seee.g., Moss, J. (1995) in Peptide-Based Drug Design: ControllingTransport and Metabolism, Taylor, M. D. and Amidon, G. L. (eds), Chapter18. Additionally strategies have been specifically tailored to achievingCNS delivery based on “sequential metabolism” (see e.g., Bodor, N., etal. (1992) Science 257:1698-1700; Prokai, L., et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem.Soc. 116:2643-2644; Bodor, N. and Prokai, L. (1995) in Peptide-BasedDrug Design: Controlling Transport and Metabolism, Taylor, M. D. andAmidon, G. L. (eds), Chapter 14. In one embodiment of a prodrug form ofa modulator of the invention, the modifying group comprises an alkylester to facilitate blood-brain barrier permeability.

Modulator compounds of the invention can be prepared by chemicalsynthesis using standard techniques known in the art. The peptidecomponent of a modulator composed, at least in part, of a peptide, canbe synthesized using standard techniques such as those described inBodansky, M. Principles of Peptide Synthesis, Springer Verlag, Berlin(1993) and Grant, G. A. (ed.). Synthetic Peptides: A User's Guide, W. H.Freeman and Company, New York (1992). Automated peptide synthesizers arecommercially available (e.g., Advanced ChemTech Model 396;Milligen/Biosearch 9600). Additionally, one or more modulating groupscan be attached to the SOD1 or Aβ modulator (e.g., a SOD1 or an Aβaggregation core domain) by standard methods, for example using methodsfor reaction through an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydroxyl group(e.g., on a tyrosine, serine or threonine residue) or other suitablereactive group on an amino acid side chain (see e.g., Greene, T. W. andWuts, P. G. M. Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, John Wiley andSons, Inc., New York (1991)).

Alternatively, modulator compounds of the invention can be preparedbiosynthetically and isolated in pure or enriched form from arecombinant production host, such a bacterial, yeast, plant, ormammalian cell (see, e.g., Scott C P, Abel-Santos E, Jones A D, BenkovicS J, Structural requirements for the biosynthesis of backbone cyclicpeptide libraries. Chem Biol. 2001 August; 8(8):801-15, as an example ofrecombinant production of cyclic oligopeptides in bacterial cells).

Alternatively, modulator compounds of the invention can be preparedbiosynthetically from a recombinant production host, such a bacterial,yeast, plant, or mammalian cell, but may not be isolated in pure orenriched form, and instead be provided to the diseased organism as partof recombinant production host, such a bacterial, yeast, plant, ormammalian cell producing the specific modulator compound recombinantlyin the form of a probiotic. By the term “probiotic”, we mean livingmicroorganisms or other cultured cells that may provide health benefitswhen administered and consumed in adequate amounts (see, e.g., O'Toole PW, Marchesi J R, Hill C, Next-generation probiotics: the spectrum fromprobiotics to live biotherapeutics, Nat Microbiol. 2017 Apr. 25;2:17057).

IV. Hybrid Modulators

A hybrid molecule of the invention includes a peptide or polypeptidethat binds to the amyloid or non-amyloid form of SOD1 or amyloid form ofAβ, and a scaffold molecule. The scaffold molecule can include adiagnostic or therapeutic reagent. The therapeutic or diagnostic reagentcan be a polypeptide, small molecule or compound.

In particular, provided herein are hybrid molecules, such as hybridpolypeptides, that include a peptide or polypeptide provided herein, andadditional amino acid residues (typically, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50,100 or more) such that the resulting hybrid molecule specificallyinteracts with SOD1 or Aβ. The motif can be modified, such as byreplacing certain amino acids or by directed and random evolutionmethods, to produce motifs with greater affinity. As used herein, ahybrid polypeptide refers to a polypeptide that includes regions from atleast two sources, such as from an antibody or enzyme or other scaffoldthat can be a recipient, and a binding motif, such as a polypeptide orpeptide that binds to an amyloid or non-amyloid form of SOD1 or theamyloid form of the Aβ peptide.

Thus, among the hybrid molecules provided herein are hybrid molecules,particularly hybrid polypeptides that are produced by grafting a bindingmotif (e.g., peptide) from one molecule into a scaffold, such as anantibody or fragment thereof or an enzyme or other reporter molecule.The hybrid polypeptides provided herein, even the hybridimmunoglobulins, are not antibodies per se, but are polypeptides thatare hybrid molecules containing a selected motif (e.g., a peptide thatbinds to the amyloid or non-amyloid form of SOD1 or the amyloid form ofthe Aβ peptide) inserted into another polypeptide such that the motifretains or obtains the ability to bind to a protein involved in diseaseof protein aggregation. The hybrid polypeptides can include portions ofantibodies or other scaffolds, but they also include anon-immunoglobulin or non-scaffold portion grafted therein. Thenon-immunoglobulin portion is identified by its ability to specificallybind to a targeted polypeptide isoform. The hybrid polypeptide canspecifically bind to the targeted infectious or disease-related or aselected isoform of a polypeptide as monomer with sufficient affinity todetect the resulting complex or to precipitate the targeted polypeptide.

The scaffold is selected so that insertion of the motif therein does notsubstantially alter (i.e., retains) the desired binding specificity ofthe motif. The scaffold additionally can be selected for its properties,such as its ability to act as a reporter.

Methods for production of hybrid molecules that specifically interactwith a one form of a conformer of a protein associated with a disease ofprotein conformation or involving protein aggregation are provided. Inthese methods a polypeptide motif from the protein is inserted into ascaffold such that the resulting molecule exhibits specific binding toone conformer compared to other conformers. In particular, the hybridmolecule can exhibit specific binding to the amyloid or non-amyloid formof SOD1 or the amyloid form of the Aβ peptide.

Peptides of the invention have been shown to bind to SOD1 or Aβ in vitroand in vivo. The peptides can be incorporated into a scaffold thatcomprises additional amino acid sequences and/or compounds. The hybridmolecule can then be used to label or treat the aggregates associatedwith SOD1 or plaques associated with Aβ amyloid. The polypeptides,nucleic acids encoding the polypeptides, and methods of using thepolypeptides or nucleic acids can be used to identify, diagnose and/ortreat disorders associated with plaque formation in brain tissue.

Any molecule, such as a polypeptide, into which the selected polypeptidemotif is inserted (or linked) such that the resulting hybrid polypeptidehas the desired binding specificity, is contemplated for use as part ofthe hybrid molecules herein. The polypeptides can be inserted into anysequence of amino acids that at least contains a sufficient number (10,20, 30, 50, 100 or more amino acids) to properly present the motif forbinding to the targeted amyloid plaque. The purpose of the scaffold isto present the motif to the targeted polypeptide in a form that bindsthereto. The scaffold can be designed or chosen to have additionalproperties, such as the ability to serve as a detectable marker or labelor to have additional binding specificity to permit or aid in its use inassays to detect particular isoforms of a target protein (e.g., theamyloid or non-amyloid form of SOD1 or the amyloid form of the Aβpeptide) or for screening for therapeutics or other assays and methods.

The scaffolds include reporter molecules, such as fluorescent proteinsand enzymes or fragments thereof, and binding molecules, such asantibodies or fragments thereof. Selected scaffolds include all orportions of antibodies, enzymes, such as luciferases, alkalinephosphatases, β-galactosidases and other signal-generating enzymes,chemiluminescence generators, such as horseradish peroxidase;fluorescent proteins, such as red, green and blue fluorescent proteins,which are well known; and chromogenic proteins.

The peptide motif is inserted into the scaffold in a region that doesnot disturb any desired activity. The scaffolds can include otherfunctional domains, such as an additional binding site, such as onespecific for a second moiety for detection.

V. Nucleic Acid Molecules

Nucleic acid molecules encoding any of the peptides, polypeptides orhybrid polypeptides provided herein are provided in the generalexperimental procedures. Such molecules can be introduced into plasmidsand vectors for expression in suitable host cells. As used herein, theterm “nucleic acid” refers to single-stranded and/or double-strandedpolynucleotides such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and ribonucleicacid (RNA) as well as analogs or derivatives of either RNA or DNA. Alsoincluded in the term “nucleic acid” are analogs of nucleic acids such aspeptide nucleic acid (PNA), phosphorothioate DNA, and other such analogsand derivatives or combinations thereof. The term should be understoodto include, as equivalents, derivatives, variants and analogs of eitherRNA or DNA made from nucleotide analogs, single (sense or antisense) anddouble-stranded polynucleotides. Deoxyribonucleotides includedeoxyadenosine, deoxycytidine, deoxyguanosine and deoxythymidine. ForRNA, the uracil base is uridine.

Plasmids and vectors containing the nucleic acid molecules also areprovided in the general experimental procedures. Cells containing thevectors, including cells that express the encoded proteins are alsoprovided. The cell can be a bacterial cell, a yeast cell, a fungal cell,a plant cell, an insect cell or an animal cell. Methods for producing acyclic oligopeptide or a hybrid polypeptide, for example, growing thecell under conditions whereby the encoded polypeptide is expressed bythe cell, and recovering the expressed protein, are provided herein. Thecells are used for expression of the cyclic oligopeptide or the protein,which can be secreted or expressed in the cytoplasm. The hybridpolypeptides also can be chemically synthesized using standard methodsof protein synthesis known in the art.

VI. Pharmaceutical Compositions

It is envisioned that one would use the modulators of the presentinvention as an Alzheimer's disease or amyotrophic lateral sclerosistherapeutic. If the modulator were peptide in nature, one could use agene therapy technique to deliver DNA constructs encoding the modulatorto the affected sites. For drug formulations, one would expect that theformulations reach and be effective at the affected site. Thesemodulators would more likely be carbohydrate and peptide mixtures,especially mixtures capable of overcoming the blood brain barrier. Forexamples, see Tamai, et al., Adv. Drug Delivery Review 19:401-424, 1996,hereby incorporated by reference. In these cases, the disrupting elementof the modulators would also facilitate transport across the blood-brainbarrier.

Thus, the present invention encompasses methods for therapeutictreatments of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease,comprising administering a compound of the invention in amountssufficient to modulate the natural course of SOD1 or Aβ aggregation.Accordingly, the present invention includes pharmaceutical compositionscomprising, as an active ingredient, at least one of the peptides orother compounds of the invention in association with a pharmaceuticalcarrier or diluent. The compounds of the invention can be administeredby oral, parenteral (intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous (IV) orsubcutaneous injection), transdermal, nasal, vaginal, rectal, orsublingual routes of administration.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets,pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the activecompound is admixed with at least one inert pharmaceutically acceptablecarrier such as sucrose, lactose, or starch. Such dosage forms can alsocomprise, as is normal practice, additional substances other than inertdiluents, e.g., lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate. In thecase of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage forms may also comprisebuffering agents. Tablets and pills can additionally be prepared withenteric coatings.

Liquid dosage forms for oral administration include pharmaceuticallyacceptable emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, with the elixirscontaining inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water.Besides such inert diluents, compositions can also include adjuvants,such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, andsweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents.

Preparations according to this invention for parenteral administrationinclude sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, oremulsions. Examples of non-aqueous solvents or vehicles are propyleneglycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils, such as olive oil and cornoil, gelatin, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Suchdosage forms may also contain adjuvants such as preserving, wetting,emulsifying, and dispersing agents. They may be sterilized by, forexample, filtration through bacteria-retaining filters, by incorporatingsterilizing agents into the compositions, by irradiating thecompositions, or by heating the compositions. They can also bemanufactured using sterile water, or some other sterile injectablemedium, immediately before use.

Compositions for rectal or vaginal administration are preferablysuppositories which may contain, in addition to the active substance,excipients such as cocoa butter or a suppository wax. Compositions fornasal or sublingual administration area are also prepared with standardexcipients well known in the art.

The dosage of active ingredient in the compositions of this inventionmay be varied; however, it is necessary that the amount of the activeingredient shall be such that a suitable dosage form is obtained. Theselected dosage depends upon the desired therapeutic effect, on theroute of administration, and on the duration of the treatment desired.

The following examples illustrate aspects of the present inventionincluding the construction and screening of a peptide macrocyclelibrary; the identification of macrocyclic peptide rescuers of themisfolding and aggregation of the prominent PMD-associated proteintarget SOD1 and fALS-associated variants thereof, as well as as a secondprominent PMD-associated protein target, Aβ, and finally their use inrescuing of SOD1 and Aβ aggregation and toxicity in vitro and in vivo.The Examples are not in any way limiting the scope of invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Combinatorial libraries of random cyclic tetra-, penta-, andhexapeptides have been selected to be studied as potential rescuers ofSOD1 and mutant SOD1 misfolding and pathogenic aggregation. A techniquenamed split intein circular ligation of peptides and proteins (SICLOPPS)(U.S. Pat. No. 7,354,756 B1 “Intein-mediated cyclization of peptides”)for producing peptide libraries in E. coli is being used. SICLOPPS usessplit inteins, i.e. self-splicing protein elements, for performing N- toC-terminal peptide cyclization and biosynthesize cyclic peptides asshort as four amino acids long. The only requirement for the inteinsplicing reaction and peptide cyclization to occur is the presence of anucleophilic amino acids cysteine (C), serine (S), or threonine (T) asthe first amino acid of the extein following the C-terminus of theintein.

In order for the inventors to maximize the diversity of the libraries,they chose to study peptides with the general formula cyclo-NuX₁X₂ , , ,X_(N), where Nu=C, S or T; X is any one of the twenty natural aminoacids and N=3-5 (FIG. 1A). The maximum theoretical diversity of thecombined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library is >10 million different sequences(FIG. 1B). The libraries of genes encoding this combinatorial library ofrandom cyclic oligopeptides were constructed using degenerate codons.The inventors constructed the high diversity pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅vector library which is expected to be encoding all of the theoreticallypossible designed cyclic tetra-, penta-, and hexapeptide NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅sequences using molecular biology techniques already known and used inthe art.

It has been demonstrated previously that the fluorescence of E. colicells expressing a recombinant protein whose C terminus is fused to GFPcorrelates well with the amount of soluble and folded protein (Waldo GS, Standish B M, Berendzen J, Terwilliger T C. Nat Biotechnol. 1999July; 17(7):691-5). Based on this, the inventors reasoned that thefluorescence of MisP-GFP fusions can serve as a reliable reporter forthe identification of chemical rescuers of MisP misfolding for a numberof disease-associated MisPs, including SOD1. In order to test thishypothesis, the inventors generated fusions of SOD1 variants, whosemisfolding and aggregation have been linked with the pathology offamilial forms of ALS (fALS), with GFP. Expression of these fusions inE. coli, yielded levels of cellular fluorescence, which weresignificantly decreased compared to that of the generallynon-pathogenic, wild-type SOD1 (FIG. 2A). Western blot analysisindicated that this occurs because the accumulation of soluble SOD1-GFPis decreased in the presence of misfolding-inducing amino acidsubstitutions, which in turn takes place due to enhancedmisfolding/aggregation of GFP-fused, as well as fusion-free SOD1 (FIG.2B, 2C). Thus, the fluorescence of E. coli cells overexpressing SOD1-GFPfusions appears to be a good indicator of SOD1 folding and misfolding.

Example 2

To test whether the bacterial platform can be utilized to identifychemical rescuers of disease-associated SOD1, the inventors screened forcyclic oligopeptides that inhibit the aggregation of SOD1(A4V), afALS-associated variant, whose misfolding and aggregation causes a veryaggressive form of the disease with an average survival time of only 1.2years after diagnosis. FACS screening of the cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅oligopeptide library for bacterial clones exhibiting enhanced levels ofSOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence yielded an E. coli population with about10-fold increased fluorescence after four rounds of sorting (FIGS. 3A,3B). Twenty randomly selected clones from the isolated populationexhibited up to 10-fold enhanced fluorescence compared to E. coli cellsproducing randomly selected cyclic oligopeptides from the initiallibrary. Four of the isolated clones exhibited the highest levels ofcellular SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence (FIG. 3C), and were selected forfurther analysis. These clones (i) expressed tetra-partiteI_(C)-peptide-IN-CBD fusions, which could undergo splicing (FIG. 3D),(ii) exhibited splicing-activity-dependent enhanced SOD1(A4V)-GFPfluorescence (FIG. 3C), and (iii) exhibited SOD1-specific enhancement ofbacterial fluorescence (FIG. 3E). Western blot analysis indicated thatthis enhanced SOD1(A4V)-GFP fluorescence phenotype occurs due toaccumulation of enhanced amounts of soluble SOD1(A4V) in these clones(FIG. 3F). Sequencing of the peptide-encoding region of the pSICLOPPSvector contained in these clones revealed that they all encode cyclicpentapeptides with sequences TASFW, TWSVW, and TFSMW (FIG. 3G), thusindicating a dominant cyclo-TXSXW bioactive motif.

Example 3

The peptide cyclo-TWSVW, hereafter referred to as SOD1C5-4 (FIG. 4A),which was present twice among the four selected clones, was selected forfurther analysis and was produced in mg quantities by solid-phasesynthesis. Isolated SOD1(A4V) was utilized to assess the effect of theselected cyclic pentapeptide SOD1C5-4 on its aggregation process. CDspectroscopy indicated that SOD1C5-4—but not the control Aβ-targetingcyclic pentapeptides AβC5-34 or AβC5-116—interacts with SOD1(A4V), andthat the time-dependent conformational transition that is indicative ofSOD1(A4V) aggregation is significantly delayed in the presence ofSOD1C5-4 (FIG. 4B). Moreover, dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysisrevealed that SOD1C5-4 addition results in the time-dependent formationof oligomeric/aggregated SOD1(A4V) species with markedly smaller sizes(FIG. 4C). Detection of large, amyloid-like SOD1(A4V) aggregates by ThTstaining and a filter retardation assay indicated that the formation ofsuch species was dramatically decreased in the presence of SOD1C5-4(FIGS. 4D and 4E). Finally, staining of SOD1(A4V) with theconformation-sensitive dye SYPRO Orange under heat-induced denaturationconditions, suggested that the aggregation-inhibitory action of SOD1C5-4may be occurring due to its ability to decrease the propensity ofSOD1(A4V) to expose hydrophobic surfaces (FIG. 4F), a feature which hasbeen proposed to be a molecular determinant of the pathogenesis offALS-associated SOD1 variants (Munch C, Bertolotti A. J Mol Biol. 2010;399(3):512-25). Taken together, these results demonstrate that SOD1C5-4is an efficient and specific rescuer of SOD1(A4V) misfolding andaggregation.

Example 4

The protective effects of SOD1C5-4 in mammalian cells were evaluated inhuman embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells transiently expressingSOD1(A4V)-GFP. Cells treated with SOD1C5-4 exhibited higherfluorescence, fewer inclusions comprising aggregated SOD1(A4V)-GFP, andhigher viability compared to untreated cells (FIGS. 5A-5C).

Example 5

To determine structure-activity relationships for the identified mutantSOD1-targeting cyclic oligopeptides, the sequences of thepeptide-encoding regions from ˜5.3 million clones selected after thefourth round of FACS sorting (FIG. 3B) were determined by deepsequencing. 367 distinct oligopeptide sequences appeared more than 50times among the selected clones and were selected for subsequentanalysis, which revealed the following. First, pentapeptides were thedominant peptide species within the sorted pool, with 197 of thedistinct oligopeptide sequences selected corresponding to pentapeptides(54%), 148 to hexapeptides (40%) and 22 corresponding to tetrapeptides(6%) (FIG. 6A). Second, the vast majority of the selected peptidesexhibited the cyclo-TXSXW motif of SOD1C5-4 (˜92% of all selected clonesand ˜97% of the selected pentapeptide-encoding clones (FIG. 7). Third,among the selected cyclo-TXSXW pentapeptides, I, N, Q, M, E, H, and Kresidues were excluded at position 2, and were preferably S, A, W or F.At position 4, I, N, Q, C, D, E, K and P residues were excluded, andwere preferably V, W, F, M, or H (FIGS. 6B-6D). Taken together, theseresults indicate that the most bioactive macrocyclic structures againstSOD1(A4V) misfolding and aggregation in the library are cyclicpentapeptides of the cyclo-T(Φ₁,S)S(Φ₂,M,H)W motif, where Φ₁ ispreferably one of the hydrophobic (Φ) amino acids A, W or F, while Φ₂ ispreferably V, W or F. Interestingly, selected cyclic pentapeptidesbelonging to this functional motif were found to be efficient inenhancing the fluorescence of SOD1-GFP containing wild-type SOD1, aswell as three additional SOD1 variants, SOD1(G37R), SOD1(G85R), andSOD1(G93A), all of which are associated with familial forms of ALS, thusindicating that these peptide macroccycles are effective rescuers of themisfolding of not only SOD1(A4V), but also of other ALS-related SOD1variants, as well as wild-type SOD1 (FIG. 6E).

Example 6

Combinatorial libraries of random cyclic tetra-, penta-, andhexapeptides have been selected to be studied as potential rescuers ofAβ misfolding and pathogenic aggregation.

To identify cyclic oligopeptide sequences with the ability to interferewith the problematic folding of Aβ and inhibit itsoligomerization/aggregation, the inventors utilized a bacterialhigh-throughput genetic screen. This system monitors Aβ misfolding andaggregation by measuring the fluorescence of E. coli cellsoverexpressing a chimeric fusion of the human Aβ(1-42) peptide (Aβ₄₂)with GFP (US20070077552A1 “High throughput screen for inhibitors ofpolypeptide aggregation”). It has been demonstrated previously that dueto the high aggregation propensity of Aβ, E. coli cells overexpressingAβ-GFP fusions produce misfolded fusion protein that accumulates intoinsoluble inclusion bodies that lack fluorescence, despite the fact thatthey express these fusions at high levels. Mutations in the codingsequence of Aβ or the addition of compounds that inhibit Aβ aggregation,however, result in the formation of soluble and fluorescent Aβ-GFP, andbacterial cells expressing Aβ-GFP under these conditions acquire afluorescent phenotype. The inventors of the present invention adaptedthis system to perform screening for aggregation-inhibitory macrocyclesin a very high-throughput fashion by isolating cyclicoligopeptide-producing bacterial clones that exhibit enhanced levels ofAβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)as also performed in a similar manner and demonstrated for SOD1 in FIG.3A.

E. coli BL21(DE3) cells producing the combined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library, while simultaneously overexpressing the Aβ₄₂-GFP reporter, weresubjected to FACS sorting for the isolation of clones exhibitingenhanced Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence. After two rounds of sorting, the meanfluorescence of the bacterial population increased by almost three-foldcompared to that of the initial library (FIG. 8A). Ten individual cloneswere randomly picked from the sorted population and their Aβ₄₂-GFPfluorescence was measured using a plate reader. Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence ofthe isolated peptide-expressing clones was found to be dramaticallyincreased compared to cells expressing the same Aβ₄₂-GFP fusion in thepresence of random cyclic peptide sequences picked from the initial(unselected) cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ library (FIG. 8B). Furthermore, theobserved phenotypic effects were dependent on the ability of the SspDnaE intein to perform protein splicing, as the double amino acidsubstitution H24L/F26A in the C-terminal half of the Ssp DnaE intein,which is known to abolish asparagine cyclization at the I_(C)/exteinjunction, and prevent extein splicing and peptide cyclization, was foundto reduce Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence back to wild-type levels (FIG. 8B).Finally, the observed increases in fluorescence were found to beAβ-specific, as the isolated pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors did notenhance the levels of cellular green fluorescence when the sequence ofAβ in the Aβ₄₂-GFP reporter was replaced with those of two unrelateddisease-associated MisPs, the DNA-binding (core) domain of the human p53containing a tyrosine to cysteine substitution at position 220(p53C(Y220C)) and an alanine to valine substitution at position 4 ofhuman Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1(A4V)) (FIG. 8C). On thecontrary, the selected pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vectors were efficient inenhancing the fluorescence of Aβ-GFP containing two additional Aβvariants, Aβ₄₀ and the E22G (arctic) variant of Aβ₄₂, which isassociated with familial forms of AD (FIG. 8D).

Analysis of the expressed Aβ₄₂-GFP fusions by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and western blottingrevealed that the bacterial clones expressing the selected cyclicpeptides produce markedly increased levels of soluble Aβ₄₂-GFP comparedto random cyclic peptide sequences, despite the fact that accumulationof total Aβ₄₂-GFP protein remained at similar levels in all cases (FIG.8E). Furthermore, when the same cell lysates were analyzed by nativePAGE and western blotting, it was observed that co-expression of theselected cyclic peptides reduced the accumulation of higher-orderAβ₄₂-GFP aggregates, which could not enter the gel, and increased theabundance of species with higher electrophoretic mobility (FIG. 8F,left). As revealed by in-gel fluorescence analysis, these higherelectrophoretic mobility species correspond to the fraction of the totalAβ₄₂-GFP that exhibits fluorescence (FIG. 8F, right). Since thesolubility and fluorescence of bacterially expressed Aβ-GFP has beenfound to be inversely proportional to the aggregation propensity of Aβ,these results suggest that Aβ aggregation is significantly decreased inthe presence of the selected cyclic peptides.

DNA sequencing of the peptide-encoding regions of ten isolated clonesfrom the selected pool revealed eight distinct putative Aβaggregation-inhibitory cyclic peptide sequences: one corresponded to ahexapeptide (TPVWFD; present twice among the sequenced clones) and sevenpentapeptides (TAFDR, TAWCR, TTWCR, TTVDR, TTYAR (present twice), TTTAR,and SASPT) (FIG. 8G). Interestingly, the Arg residue at position 5,frequently encountered among the selected pentapeptides, was encoded bythree different codons in the selected pSICLOPPS plasmids, thussuggesting that its dominance among the isolated clones was notcoincidental.

Example 7

Two of the selected cyclic peptide sequences, cyclo-TAFDR andcyclo-SASPT, hereafter referred to as AβC5-116 and AβC5-34 (Aβ-targetingcyclic 5-peptide number 116 and 34), respectively, were chosen forsubsequent analysis and were produced by solid-phase synthesis in mgquantities (FIG. 9A). The inventors of the present invention chose tofocus on pentapeptides, as this was the type of peptide most frequentlypresent among the ones selected from the genetic screen. The inventorsdecided to further study the sequence AβC5-116 since the cyclo-TXXXRmotif was particularly dominant among the selected pentapeptides, whileAβC5-34 was chosen because it was the only selected pentapeptide whosesequence appeared to deviate from this motif (FIG. 8G).

Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy was first used to assess the effectof the selected pentapeptides on the aggregation process of Aβ₄₀ andAβ₄₂. Addition of AβC5-116 was found to strongly inhibit the aggregationof Aβ₄₀, which remained at a random coil conformation in the presence ofthis cyclic peptide for extended periods of time (FIG. 9B). The additionof AβC5-34 did not have the same effect and resulted in the appearanceof a low-intensity negative peak (FIG. 9B). When the same CD solutionswere subjected to a thioflavin T (ThT) dye-binding assay that detectsamyloid fibrils, we observed that Aβ₄₀ fibril formation was reduced inthe presence of AβC5-116, while it remained almost unaffected by AβC5-34(FIG. 9C).

In the case of Aβ₄₂, both selected cyclic pentapeptides affected itsnormal aggregation pathway strongly and stabilized β-sheet-likestructures (FIG. 9B). ThT staining of the same samples revealed that theextent of amyloid fibril formation was greatly reduced in both cases(FIG. 9C). When the cyclic peptides were added at a higher ratio,similar CD patterns were observed, however the negative peaks were muchmore pronounced and fibril formation was completely prevented (FIG. 9C,bottom; FIG. 9D). The addition of two control peptides, a randomlydesigned cyclic pentapeptide sequence and a cyclic pentapeptide(SODC5-4) targeting a different protein did not have any effect on theaggregation process of Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ (FIGS. 9B-9C, and data not shown),thus demonstrating that cyclic peptides are not general inhibitors of Aβaggregation and that the Aβ aggregation-modulating effect of theselected sequences relies on their cyclic nature.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of solutions of Aβ₄₂incubated without/with AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 are presented in FIG. 9E.The Aβ₄₂ samples were the same as those employed in the CD and ThTstudies to allow for direct correlation of findings. Aβ₄₂ incubatedalone presented the typical dense network of intertwined fibrils. In thepresence of the selected cyclic peptides, however, the fibrils werenotably fewer, shorter and ill-developed, and the dense fibrillarynetwork observed in their absence was not detected anywhere on the TEMgrid, in agreement with the ThT data. Taken together, these resultsindicate that the selected cyclic oligopeptides modulate the normalaggregation process of Aβ, and their presence likely stabilizes theformation of species, which cannot develop into larger fibril-likestructures.

Example 8

The effects of AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 on Aβ₄₀- and Aβ₄₂-induced toxicitywere evaluated in primary mouse hippocampal neurons. The addition ofAβC5-34 and AβC5-116 was found to markedly inhibit the neurotoxicity ofboth Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ in a dose-responsive manner (FIG. 10A). Similarly,AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 exhibited toxicity-suppressing effects also in theglioblastoma cell line U87MG (FIG. 10B). On their own, AβC5-34 andAβC5-116 did not exhibit general growth-promoting effects orconsiderable cytotoxicity (FIGS. 10A and 10B). Control SOD1-targetingcyclic peptides previously found not to interfere with Aβ aggregation(FIGS. 9B and 9C and data not shown), were also found ineffective inrescuing Aβ-induced cytotoxicity (FIG. 10C).

The effect of AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 on the morphology of Aβ-exposedneuronal cells was assessed by phase-contrast microscopy. In thepresence of pre-aggregated Aβ, the population of attached cells wasgreatly reduced compared to the control, with many detached rounded-upcells floating in the supernatant, while hallmarks of degeneratingneurons, such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbings, fragmented neuritesand ill-developed axons were obvious in the preparations (FIG. 10D). Theaddition of the selected cyclic peptides, however, mitigated the effectsof Aβ toxicity and a marked recovery of the Aβ-induced alterations wasrecorded (FIG. 10D).

Example 9

To evaluate the protective effects of the selected cyclic peptidesagainst Aβ aggregation and toxicity in vivo, the inventors employed twoestablished models of AD in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans.The conservation of genetic and metabolic pathways between C. elegansand mammals, in combination with its completely characterized nervousand muscular system, its easy visualization and simple manipulation, hasnominated C. elegans as an excellent model for neurodegenerativediseases including AD, while chemical screening against Aβ-inducedtoxicity in C. elegans is increasingly used in AD drug discovery. Theinventors performed initially a paralysis assay in CL2006, a strainwhere human Aβ₄₂ is constitutively expressed in the body wall musclecells of the animals and Aβ aggregate formation is accompanied byadult-onset paralysis. Animals fed throughout their lifespan with E.coli OP50 cells producing AβC5-34 or AβC5-116 biosynthetically fromtheir corresponding pSICLOPPS vectors, exhibited a significant delay inthe appearance of the characteristic paralysis phenotype (FIG. 11A).Similar protective effects were observed in a dose-responsive fashionwhen synthetic AβC5-34 or AβC5-116 were supplied to CL4176, a strainconditionally expressing human Aβ₄₂ under the control of aheat-inducible promoter. When chemically synthesized AβC5-34 (10 μM) andAβC5-116 (5 μM) were supplied to CL4176 animals, a significant delay inthe appearance of the characteristic paralysis phenotype was recordedindicating protective effects against Aβ aggregation and toxicity (FIG.11B). To evaluate the state of Aβ aggregation in vivo, we utilized thestrain CL2331, which expresses an Aβ₃₋₄₂-GFP fusion in its body wallmuscle cells upon temperature up-shift. Treatment with either one of theselected peptides resulted in a significant reduction of Aβ deposits(FIG. 11C). Biochemical analysis of the accumulation levels of total andoligomeric Aβ levels in CL4176 worms, revealed a significant reductionof both Aβ species upon treatment with AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 (FIG. 11D),an effect coinciding with the observed decelerated paralysis. Takentogether, our results demonstrate that AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 exert aprotective role against Aβ

Example 10

To identify the functionally important residues within the isolatedpeptides, the inventors performed position 1 substitutions with theother two nucleophilic amino acids present in the initial libraries, aswell as alanine scanning mutagenesis at positions 3-5 of the AβC5-34 andAβC5-116 pentapeptides. As judged by the ability of the generatedvariants to enhance the fluorescence of E. coli cells overexpressingAβ₄₂-GFP, AβC5-116 was found to be much more tolerant to substitutionscompared to AβC5-34. All tested sequence alterations within AβC5-34 werefound to be deleterious for its Aβ aggregation-inhibitory effects (FIG.12A). On the contrary, only the initial Thr and the ultimate Arg werefound to be absolutely necessary for the bioactivity of AβC5-116,whereas residues at positions 3 and 4 could be substituted by Alawithout significant loss of activity (FIG. 12B). These observations arein line with the high frequency of initial Thr and ultimate Arg residuesin the sequences of the isolated pentapeptides, as well as with the highamino acid variabilities at the corresponding positions 3 and 4, andindicates that all isolated sequences with this pattern may belong tothe same consensus motif. In order to investigate this hypothesis, theinventors performed semi-saturation mutagenesis of the Ala residue ofAβC5-116 with representative amino acids from all categories. Among thetested amino acids, only Thr and Ser could be tolerated at position 2(FIG. 12C), in agreement with the fact that four out of six identifiedpentapeptides containing the cyclo-TXXXR motif included a Thr atposition 2.

The results presented in the invention indicated that there should be asignificant number of pentapeptide sequences with the ability tomodulate Aβ aggregation that resemble AβC5-116. On the other hand, veryfew bioactive sequences resembling AβC5-34 should exist. To test thishypothesis and to identify all the additional bioactive cyclicoligopeptide sequences with the ability to modulate Aβoligomerization/aggregation, the inventors turned back to the selectedbacterial population exhibiting high Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence (FIG. 8A).The peptide-encoding vectors contained in these clones were isolated andthe peptide-encoding region of approximately 5.6 million of theseplasmids was sequenced using an Ion Torrent high-throughput sequencingplatform. 605 distinct oligopeptide sequences appeared more than 50times within the analyzed population, suggesting that their presence inthe isolated pool is not coincidental. Indeed, cloning of four randomlychosen sequences appearing in the sorted pool only with very lowfrequencies, revealed that they are also efficient in increasing thefluorescence of bacterially expressed Aβ₄₂-GFP (FIG. 12F; Table 1).Analysis of the peptide sequences isolated from the genetic screen, andafter considering all circular permutants thereof, revealed thefollowing. First, pentapeptides were the dominant peptide species withinthe sorted pool (FIG. 12D), in agreement with previous observations(FIG. 8G). Second, the most prevalent motif among the selectedpentapeptide sequences were TXXXR pentapeptides (˜47% of the selectedpentapeptide-encoding pSICLOPPS plasmids; ˜42% of the unique selectedpentapeptide sequences) (Table 1), in accordance with previousobservations (FIG. 8G). On the contrary, only three pentapeptidesequences were found to have high similarity with AβC5-34 (Table 2).Third, for the selected peptides corresponding to the TXXXR motif,residues at positions 3 and 4 were highly variable and included themajority of natural amino acids, with position 3 exhibiting the highestdiversity (FIG. 12E). At position 2, Thr, Ala, and Val were preferred,while aromatic residues (Phe, Trp, Tyr) were completely excluded fromthe selected TXXXR peptide pool, in full agreement with oursite-directed mutagenesis studies. At the highly variable position 3,the complete absence of the negatively charged amino acids Glu and Aspamong the selected sequences was notable (FIG. 12E). In general, bothnegatively (Glu and Asp) and positively charged residues (Lys, His, andArg) were found to be strongly disfavored among the selected TXXXRsequences at positions 2 and 3. At position 4, Ala, Asp, and Trp werefound to be the preferred residues. It is noteworthy, that Lys and Glnresidues were practically absent from all positions, while the 13sheet-breaking amino acid Pro that is typically included in designedpeptide-based inhibitors of amyloid aggregation appeared with strikinglylow frequencies (FIG. 12E). The motif cyclo-T(T,A,V)Ψ(A,D,W)R, where Ψis anyone of the twenty natural amino acids excluding negatively chargedones, was found to be the most bioactive motif against Aβ in theinvestigated macrocycle library.

The high residue variability observed at position 3 of the selectedTXXXR peptides prompted the inventors to investigate whether AβC5-116could be further minimized. Indeed, production of truncated variants ofAβC5-116, from which Ala2 or Asp4 had been deleted, resulted in arespective two- and three-fold enhancement in the fluorescence ofbacterially expressed Aβ₄₂-GFP (FIG. 12G). In accordance with this, atotal of ten distinct cyclic tetrapeptide sequences belonging to theTXXR motif were identified among the selected peptide pool (Table 3).Taken together, our results indicate that the minimal bioactive entityagainst Aβ aggregation among this peptide family is a TXXR cyclictetrapeptide, albeit with significantly reduced efficiency compared tothe more privileged cyclic pentapeptide scaffold.

In terms of the selected cyclic hexapeptides, sequences with an initialThreonine (T) and an ultimate Aspartic acid (D) were highly dominantamong the selected pool (FIG. 12H; Table 4). As in the case of theselected Aβ-targeting pentapeptides, charged amino acids were stronglydisfavored among the selected sequences, with the exception of thedominant ultimate D residue. It is striking that aromatic amino acidswere completely (or almost completely) absent at positions 2 and 3 ofthe selected hexapeptides, but highly dominant at positions 4 and 5.This sequence analysis revealed the motif cyclo-T(P,L)(V,A)WFD as themost bioactive hexapeptide motif against Aβ in the investigatedmacrocycle library.

Example 13 Materials

Synthetic human amyloid peptides Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ were purchased fromEurogentec, Belgium (>95% pure). AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 were synthesizedby and purchased from Genscript (USA), while SOD1C5-4 was synthesizedand purchased from CPC Scientific (USA). All DNA-processing enzymes werepurchased from New England Biolabs (USA) apart from alkaline phosphataseFastAP, which was purchased from ThermoFisher Scientific (USA).Recombinant plasmids were purified using NucleoSpin Plasmid fromMacherey-Nagel (Germany) or Plasmid Midi kits from Qiagen (Germany). PCRproducts and DNA extracted from agarose gels were purified usingNucleospin Gel and PCR Clean-up kits from Macherey-Nagel (Germany),respectively. All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (USA),unless otherwise stated. Isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) waspurchased from MP Biomedicals (Germany). Stock solutions of thesynthetic cyclic peptides were as follows: 32.5 mM in water for AβC5-34,10 mM in 40% DMSO for AβC5-116 and 30 mM in 40% DMSO for SOD1C5-4.

Cyclic Oligopeptide Library Construction and Initial Characterization

Initially, nine distinct combinatorial cyclic peptide sub-libraries wereconstructed: the cyclo-CysX₁X₂X₃, cyclo-SerX₁X₂X₃, and cyclo-ThrX₁X₂X₃tetrapeptide sub-libraries (pSICLOPPS-CysX₁X₂X₃, pSICLOPPS-SerX₁X₂X₃,and pSICLOPPS-ThrX₁X₂X₃ vector sub-libraries), the cyclo-CysX₁X₂X₃X₄,cyclo-SerX₁X₂X₃X₄, and cyclo-ThrX₁X₂X₃X₄ cyclic pentapeptidesub-libraries (pSICLOPPS-CysX₁X₂X₃X₄, pSICLOPPS-SerX₁X₂X₃X₄, andpSICLOPPS-ThrX₁X₂X₃X₄ vector sub-libraries) and the cyclo-CysX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅,cyclo-SerX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅, and cyclo-ThrX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ cyclic hexapeptidesub-libraries (pSICLOPPS-CysX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅, pSICLOPPS-SerX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅, andpSICLOPPS-ThrX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ vector sub-libraries). These vectors expresslibraries of fusion proteins comprising four parts: (i) the C-terminaldomain of the split Ssp DnaE intein (I_(C)), (ii) a tetra-, penta-, orhexapeptide sequence, (iii) the N-terminal domain of the split Ssp DnaEintein (IN), and (iv) a chitin-binding domain (CBD) under the control ofthe PBAD promoter and its inducer L(+)-arabinose (FIG. 1A). Thelibraries of genes encoding these combinatorial libraries of randomcyclic oligopeptides were constructed using degenerate primers. Cys,Ser, and Thr were encoded in these primers by the codons UGC, AGC, andACC, respectively, which are the most frequently utilized ones for theseamino acids in E. coli, while the randomized amino acids (X) wereencoded using random NNS codons, where N=A, T, G, or C and S=G or C. Asecond PCR reaction was conducted in each case to eliminate mismatches.The resulting PCR products were digested with BglI and HindIII for 5 hand inserted into the similarly digested and dephosphorylated auxiliaryvector pSICLOPPSKanR (see below). The ligation reactions were optimisedat a 12:1 insert:vector molar ratio and performed for 4 h at 16° C.Approximately 0.35, 0.7 and 3.5 μg of the pSICLOPPSKanR vector were usedfor each one of the tetra-, penta- and hexapeptide libraries,respectively. The ligated DNA was then purified using spin columns(Macherey-Nagel, Germany), transformed into electro-competent MC1061cells prepared in-house, plated onto LB agar plates containing 25 μg/mLchloramphenicol and incubated at 37° C. for 14-16 h. This procedureresulted in the construction of the combined pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅library with a total diversity of about 31,240,000 independenttransformants, as judged by plating experiments after serial dilutions.

Colony PCR of 124 randomly selected clones with intein-specific primersrevealed that 88 of them (˜71%) contained the correct insert.Overexpression of the tetra-partite fusion in 150 randomly selectedclones using 0.002% arabinose and monitoring of the production of thisfusion protein by western blotting using a mouse anti-CBD primaryantibody (New England Biolabs, USA; 1:100,000 dilution) and a goatanti-mouse HRP-conjugated secondary antibody (Bio-Rad, USA; 1:4,000dilution), showed that 99 of them (˜66%) produced high yields of thetetra-partite fusion protein. Among these 99 clones that producedprecursor fusion protein (molecular mass ˜25 kDa), 82 clones (˜55% oftotal clones tested) also yielded a lower molecular weight band(molecular mass ˜20 kDa), which corresponds to one of the splicingreaction products, the N-terminal domain of the Ssp DnaE intein fused toCBD (IN-CBD), after intein splicing and cyclic peptide formation takesplace. Therefore, according to these results, the generated bacteriallibraries encoding for cyclic tetra-, penta- and hexapeptide containapproximately 20,760,000 clones, which express tetra-partite peptidefusions at high levels and which are capable of undergoing splicing andpotentially yielding cyclic peptide products. This diversity coversfully the theoretical diversity of our combined cyclo-NuX₁X₂X₃,NuX₁X₂X₃X₄ and NuX₁X₂X₃X₄X₅ libraries (3×20³+3×20⁴+3×20⁵=10,104,000) bymore than two-fold (FIG. 1B).

Expression Vector Construction

For the construction of pETSOD1-GFP, the human SOD1 cDNA was generatedby PCR-mediated gene assembly. The assembled gene was further amplifiedby PCR and the resulting product was digested with NdeI and BamHI, andinserted into similarly digested pAβ₄₂-GFP vector GFP (Wurth C, GuimardN K, Hecht M H., J Mol Biol. 2002; 319(5):1279-90), in the place ofAβ₄₂. For pETSOD1(A4V)-GFP, SOD1 was amplified by PCR from thepETSOD1-GFP vector using the mutagenic forward primer GS059 and thereverse primer GS060. The resulting PCR product was then digested withNdeI and BamHI, and inserted into similarly digested pETAβ₄₂-GFP. ForpETSOD1(G37R)-GFP, pETSOD1(G85R)-GFP and pETSOD1(G93A)-GFP construction,SOD1 was mutated by overlap extension PCR starting from pETSOD1-GFP as atemplate. All SOD1 PCR products were then digested with NdeI and BamHI,and inserted into similarly digested pETAβ₄₂-GFP vector. For theconstruction of pETSOD1, pETSOD1 (G37R), pETSOD1(G85R) andpETSOD1(G93A), the corresponding SOD1 genes were amplified by PCR frompETSOD1-GFP, pETSOD1(G37R)-GFP, pETSOD1(G85R)-GFP and pETSOD1(G93A)-GFP,respectively. For the construction of pETSOD1(A4V), SOD1 was amplifiedfrom pETSOD1(A4V)-GFP. All SOD1 PCR products were digested with XbaI andBamHI, and cloned into similarly digested pET28a(+) (Novagen).

For the construction of the pSICLOPPS vectors encoding for variants ofthe selected AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 peptides, the auxiliary pSICLOPPSKanRvector was generated initially. pSICLOPPSKanR was constructed by PCRamplification of the gene encoding aminoglycoside 3′-phosphotransferase(KanR—the enzyme conferring resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin) frompET28a(+), digestion with BglI and HindIII and insertion into similarlydigested pSICLOPPS. For the construction of the vectorspSICLOPPS-AβC5-34(S1C), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-34(S1T), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-34(S3A),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-34(P4A) and pSICLOPPS-AβC5-34(T5A), mutagenic PCR wascarried out starting from pSICLOPPS-AβC5-34, followed by digestion ofthe generated product with BglI and HindIII and insertion into similarlydigested pSICLOPPSKanR. The vectors pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(T1C),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(T1S), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(F3A),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(D4A), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(R5A),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(A2F), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(A2S),pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2P), pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2T),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(A2Y), pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2H),pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2K), pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2E),pSICLOPPS-ARCS-116(A2W), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(A2R),pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(A2del), pSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(F3del) andpSICLOPPS-AβC5-116(D4del) were generated in a similar fashion.

Cyclic Oligopeptide Library Screening

Electrocompetent E. coli BL21(DE3) cells (Novagen, USA) carrying eitherthe expression vector pETSOD1(A4V)-GFP, which produces SOD1(A4V)-GFPunder control of the strong bacteriophage T7 promoter, or pETAβ₄₂-GFP,which produces Aβ₄₂-GFP under control of the T7 promoter, wereco-transformed with the combined pSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vector library.Approximately 10⁸ transformants carrying both the vector library andeither pETSOD1(A4V)-GFP or pETAβ₄₂-GFP vectors were harvested, pooledtogether, and grown in Luria-Bertani (LB) liquid medium containingeither 0.005% (pETSOD1(A4F)-GFP) or 0.002% (pETAβ₄₂-GFP) L-arabinose—theinducer of cyclic peptide production—at 37° C. with shaking. When theoptical density at 600 nm (OD₆₀₀) of the bacterial culture was about0.5, 0.01 (pETSOD1(A4F)-GFP) or 0.1 (pETAβ₄₂-GFP) mMisopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) was added to the medium to induceoverexpression of the reporter. After about two hours at 37° C., ˜10⁸cells were screened and the population exhibiting the top 1-3%fluorescence was isolated using FACS (BD FACSAria, BD Biosciences, USA).The isolated cells were re-grown and screened for additional rounds inan identical manner until the desired enrichment in high-fluorescenceclones was achieved.

Protein/Cyclic Peptide Production in Liquid Cultures

E. coli cells freshly transformed with the appropriate expressionvector(s) were used for protein production experiments in all cases.Single bacterial colonies were used to inoculate overnight liquid LBcultures containing the appropriate antibiotics for plasmid maintenance(100 μg/mL ampicillin, 40 μg/mL chloramphenicol (Sigma, USA)) at 37° C.These cultures were used with a 1:100 dilution to inoculate fresh LBcultures in all cases.

For SOD1 or SOD1-GFP production, BL21(DE3) (Novagen, USA) or Origami2(DE3) cells (Novagen, USA) were transformed with the correspondingSOD1- or SOD1-GFP-encoding vector, either with the appropriate pSICLOPPSvector or alone. Cells were grown in 5 mL liquid LB cultures containing50 μg/mL kanamycin (or 100 μg/mL ampicillin for pASK75-based vectors),40 μg/mL chloramphenicol (for cell cultures carrying also a pSICLOPPSvector), 200 μM CuCl₂, 200 μM ZnCl₂ and 0.005% arabinose (for cellcultures carrying also a pSICLOPPS vector) at 37° C. to an OD₆₀₀ of˜0.3-0.5 with shaking, at which point SOD1 or SOD1-GFP production wasinduced by the addition of 0.01 mM IPTG (0.2 μg/mL anhydrotetracycline(aTc) for pASK-based vectors) for 2-3 h.

For Aβ₄₂-GFP production, BL21(DE3) cells were transformed withpETAβ₄₂-GFP and the appropriate pSICLOPPS vector. Cells were grown in 5mL liquid LB cultures containing 50 μg/mL kanamycin, 40 μg/mLchloramphenicol and 0.02% arabinose at 37° C. to an OD₆₀₀ of ˜0.3-0.5with shaking, at which point Aβ₄₂-GFP production was induced by theaddition of 0.1 mM IPTG for 2-3 h.

Bacterial Cell Fluorescence

Bacterial cells corresponding to 1 mL culture with OD₆₀₀=1 wereharvested by centrifugation and re-suspended in 100 μLphosphate-buffered saline (PBS), transferred to a 96-well FLUOTRAC 200plate (Greiner Bio One International, Austria), and their fluorescencewas measured using a TECAN Safire II-Basic plate reader (Tecan,Austria). Excitation was set at 488 nm and emission was measured at 510nm.

High-Throughput Sequencing Analysis

For the characterization of the initial libraries, a combinedpSICLOPPS-NuX₁X₂X₃-X₅ vector library was prepared containingapproximately equal amounts of each one of the tetra-, penta- andhexapeptide sub-libraries. These samples were digested with NcoI andBsrGI and the resulting ˜250 bp product that contained the variablepeptide-encoding region was isolated. High-throughput sequencinganalysis was performed using an Ion Torrent high-throughput sequencingplatform. From the obtained data, all the sequences with mismatchesoutside of the variable peptide-encoding region were removed, and onlythe 12-, 15- or 18-bp-long peptide-encoding sequences were subjected tofurther analysis. The libraries of the selected cyclic peptides thatenhance either SOD1(A4V)-GFP or Aβ₄₂-GFP fluorescence were sequenced ina similar manner, with the only exception being that all sequencesincluding stop codons were discarded from subsequent analysis.

Protein Electrophoresis and Western Blot Analysis

Bacterial cells corresponding to 1 mL culture with OD₆₀₀=1 wereharvested by centrifugation and re-suspended in 200 μL PBS. Samples werelysed by brief sonication for 10 s on ice twice. These lysates (totallysate fraction) were then centrifuged at 13,000×g for 10 min, thesupernatant was collected (soluble fraction) and the pellet wasre-suspended in 200 μL PBS (insoluble fraction). For analysis bySDS-PAGE, samples were boiled for 5 min and 10 μL of each sample wereloaded onto 12% or 15% gels. For analysis by native PAGE, 10-20 μL ofeach sample were loaded onto SDS-free 10% gels without prior boiling.In-gel fluorescence was analyzed on a ChemiDoc-It² Imaging Systemequipped with a CCD camera and a GFP filter (UVP, UK), after exposurefor 3-5 sec. For western blotting, proteins were transferred topolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes (Merck, Germany) for 50 min at12 V on a semi-dry blotter (Thermo Fisher, USA). Membranes were blockedwith 5% non-fat dry milk in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1%Tween-20 (TBST) for 1 h at room temperature. After washing with TBSTthree times, membranes were incubated with the appropriate antibodydilution in TBST containing 0.5% non-fat dried milk at room temperaturefor 1 h. The utilized antibodies are described in SI Materials andMethods. The proteins were visualized using a ChemiDoc-It² ImagingSystem (UVP, UK). The utilized antibodies were a mouse monoclonal,horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated anti-polyhistidine antibody(Sigma, USA) at 1:2,500 dilution, a mouse monoclonal anti-FLAG (Sigma,USA) at 1:1,000 dilution, a mouse anti-GFP at 1:20,000 dilution(Clontech, USA), a mouse anti-Aβ (6E10) (Covance, USA) at 1:2,000dilution, a mouse anti-CBD (New England Biolabs, USA) at 1:25,000 or1:100,000 dilution, and a HRP-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody(Bio-Rad, USA) at 1:4,000.

Preparation of SOD1 Stocks and Solutions

SOD1 or mutants thereof were overexpressed from the appropriate pET-SOD1or pASK-SOD1 vectors in E. coli Origami 2(DE3) cells in LB mediumcontaining 50 μg/mL kanamycin (for pET-SOD1) or 100 μg/mL ampicillin(for pASK-SOD1), 200 μM CuCl₂, and 200 μM ZnCl₂ by the addition of 0.01mM IPTG (for pET-SOD1) or 0.2 μg/mL anhydrotetracycline (aTc) (forpASK-SOD1), either at 37° C. for 2-3 h or at 18° C. for about 16 h.Origami 2(DE3) cells were utilized in order to provide an oxidizingcytoplasmic environment in order to promote correct formation ofdisulfide bonds, which are required for proper SOD1 folding andfunction. Under these conditions, bacterially produced SOD1 is producedin dimeric and enzymatically active form, while it simultaneouslyco-exists with misfolded, soluble and insoluble SOD1oligomeric/aggregated species (FIG. 3C). Thus, the acquired protein isfound in a state that resembles the conditions encountered in humancells under stressful or pathogenic conditions. The appearance ofmisfolded SOD1 oligomers/aggregates is enhanced with increasingincubation temperatures. Thus, for assays that are more appropriate formonitoring the early steps of SOD1 oligomerization/aggregation, such asdynamic light scattering (DLS), we utilized SOD1 produced at 18° C.,whereas for assays that are more appropriate for monitoring the latersteps of SOD1 aggregation, such as filter retardation, ThT staining andCD spectroscopy, we utilized SOD1 produced at 37° C.

Preparation of Aβ Stocks and Solutions

Synthetic Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ peptides were gently dissolved without vortexingin doubly deionized water to a final concentration of 100 μM. Thesesolutions were then diluted by PBS addition (10 mM, pH 7.33) to achievea final Aβ concentration of 50 μM.

Circular Dichroism

Appropriate amounts of synthetic cyclic peptides were added to either 40μM SOD1(A4V) or 50 μM Aβ solutions at the desired cyclic peptide:targetprotein molar ratio. SOD1(A4V) structural changes were monitored for 90d at 25° C., under quiescent conditions. Aβ structural changes weremonitored for 30 d at 33° C. under quiescent conditions. CD spectra inthe range 190-260 nm were recorded on a JASCO J-715 spectropolarimeter(Jasco Co., Japan) using quartz cuvettes with 1 mm path length. Eachreported spectrum is the average of three scans at a rate of 100nm·min⁻¹ and a resolution of 0.5 nm.

Dynamic Light Scattering

The sizes of the SOD1 particles were measured using a Zetasizer NanoZS90(Malvern) instrument. After a 2-min temperature-equilibration step at37° C., eighteen consecutive 10-s measurements, per sample, wereaveraged to produce the particle size (Z average) distributions.

Thioflavin T Staining

40 μM SOD1(A4V) solutions, aged for 90 d at 25° C., with or without theselected synthetic peptides, were diluted to 10 μM with PBS. 5 μL from astock solution of ThT (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) in PBS (10 mM, pH 7.33) wasadded to these SOD1(A4V) solutions to achieve a final ThT concentrationof 10 μM. The mixture was agitated adequately by pipetting andimmediately thereafter, fluorescence was monitored with excitation at440 nm (EM slit=2.5 nm, PMT Voltage 700 V, response 0.4 s) using aHITACHI F-2500 (Japan) spectrofluorometer.

For Aβ ThT staining, 100 μL of the 30-d aged 50 μM CD solutions werediluted in PBS (10 mM, pH 7.33) to form a 25 μM Aβ solution with 200 μLfinal volume. 2.5 μL from a stock solution of ThT (Sigma-Aldrich, USA)in PBS (10 mM, pH 7.33) was added to the prepared Aβ solutions toachieve a final ThT concentration of 5 μM. The mixture was agitatedadequately by pipetting and immediately thereafter, fluorescence wasmonitored with excitation at 440 nm (EM slit=2.5 nm, PMT Voltage 700 V,response 0.4 s) using a HITACHI F-2500 (Japan) spectrofluorometer.

Filter Retardation Assay

SOD1(A4V) solutions (10 μM), incubated in the presence or absence of theselected cyclic peptides for 25 d at 37° C., were mixed with a stocksolution of SDS to achieve a final SDS concentration of 2% and thenboiled for 10 min. These samples were subsequently applied under vacuumon a 0.2 μm-pore size PVDF membrane (Merck), which had been previouslyequilibrated with transfer buffer containing 0.1% SDS, and then washedtwice with 100 μl TBS under vacuum. The membrane was blocked with 5%non-fat dry milk in TBST for 1 h at room temperature and then stainedwith a HRP-conjugated anti-polyHis antibody at a 1:2,500 dilution(Sigma-Aldrich) overnight at 4° C.

SOD1 Aggregation and Viability Measurements in HEK293 Cells

Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells were transfected using aNucleofector (Amaxa) following the manufacturer's protocol. 6 ug DNA(SOD1 or SOD1(A4V) cloned into the pEGFP-N3 plasmid vector) were usedper 2×106 cells and 5 μM synthetic SOD1C5-4 was added, whereappropriate, before plating. Transfected cells were sorted 18 h later ona FACSAria to isolate GFP-positive clones. 4′,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindoledihydrochloride (DAPI) dye was used to exclude dead cells. ˜28% of theSOD1 and ˜15% of the SOD1(A4V) total cells were found to beGFP-positive. Collected cells were plated onto a 24-well plate at adensity of 50,000 cells/well. Microscopy analysis was performed under aninverted microscope on day 1 and day 5 in culture after sorting. Cellcounts are the average number of viable GFP-fluorescing cells of twoareas per triplicate of wells of 24-well plates (magnification 20×).Cell counts are presented as percentage of viability ofSOD1-overxoressing cell. As aggregate-positive cells are counted thefluorescing inclusion body-positive cells. Again, two areas pertriplicate of wells of 24-well plate are averaged (magnification 20×).Aggregate-positive cells are presented as percentage of the total viableGFP-fluorescing cells.

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

For TEM analysis, the 30-d aged 50 μM CD solutions of Aβ₄₂ (with 100 μMof the selected peptides or without) was mixed well by pipetting. 2 μLof this solution were placed in a carbon-coated film on 200-mesh coppergrids (Agar Scientific, UK) for 5 min. After adsorption, grids werewashed in deionized water and negatively stained by applying a 2-μl dropof freshly prepared 1% (w/v) uranyl acetate (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) inMilli-Q water for 5 min. Excess fluid was blotted off, and grids werewashed in deionized water and dried in air. Images were recorded using aFEI CM20 electron microscope (FEI, USA) with a Gatan GIF200 imagingfilter (Gatan, USA), equipped with a Peltier-cooled slow-scan CCDcamera.

Neuronal Cell Cultures

The media/agents for primary neuronal cell cultures were purchased fromThermo Fisher Scientific (USA). Hippocampal neuronal cultures wereobtained from postnatal day 1 female pups of C57BL/6 mice. Briefly,after being dissected, the hippocampus was incubated with 0.25% trypsinfor 15 min at 37° C. The hippocampi were then rinsed in 10 mL ofHibernate containing 10% (v/v) heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum(FBS). Cultures were maintained in Neurobasal-A medium containing 2%B-27 supplement, 0.5 mM Gluta-MAX and 1% penicillin/streptomycin at 37°C. and 5% CO₂. Half of the medium was replaced twice a week. Neuronalhippocampal cells were plated at a density of approximately 2×10⁴ perwell in 96-well plates and 5×10⁵ per well in 24-well plates for MTT andinduced cell death assays, respectively. After seven days of incubationin culture well plates, the primary hippocampal neurons were used forthe cell viability measurements.

The utilized U87MG cells (human glioblastoma-astrocytoma,epithelial-like cell line) were kind a gift from Dr. MariaParavatou-Petsotas, Radiobiology Laboratory, Institute of Nuclear &Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, NCSR “Demokritos”.The utilized media/agents for U87MG cell cultures were obtained fromBiochrom AG (Germany) and PAA Laboratories (USA). U87MG cells were grownin Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM), supplemented with 10% fetalbovine serum (FBS), 2.5 mM L-glutamine, 1% penicillin/streptomycin at37° C. and 5% CO₂. For MTT cytotoxicity studies, cells were plated at adensity of 2×10⁴ cells per well in 96-well plates and incubated at 37°C. for 24 h to allow cells to attach. The medium was subsequentlyremoved and cells were rendered quiescent by incubation in serum-freemedium for 24 h. For cell viability measurements cells were subsequentlytreated with the indicated concentrations of Aβ in the presence orabsence of synthetic peptides, as described in Materials and Methods.

Cell Viability Measurements

Solutions of synthetic Aβ₄₀ or Aβ₄₂ (10 μM) in PBS, preincubated at 37°C. (3 d for Aβ₄₀ solutions and 1 d for Aβ₄₂ solutions) in the presenceor absence of synthetic cyclic peptides (1:1 and 2:1 ratio ofpeptides:Aβ), were diluted with fresh medium and transferred into wellsat a 1 μM final Aβ concentration. Cell viability was determined usingthe MTT assay. MTT β-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazoliumbromide) was purchased from Applichem (Germany). After 24 h of exposureto Aβ solutions, 100 μL of a 0.5 mg/mL stock solution of MTT inNeurobasal-A was added to each well of primary hippocampal neuronsfollowed by a 3 h incubation at 37° C., while 100 μL of a 1 mg/mL stocksolution of MTT in DMEM complete medium was added to each well of U87MGcells followed by a 4 h incubation at 37° C. The medium was then removedand the cells were diluted in DMSO. The relative formazan concentrationwas measured by determination of the absorbance at 540 nm using a platereader (Tecan, Austria). Results were expressed as the percentage of MTTreduction, assuming that the absorbance of control (untreated) cells was100%, and represent the mean of three independent experiments with sixreplicate wells for each condition. Induced cell death was alsoqualitatively examined by phase-contrast microscopy (Carl Zeiss,Axiovert 25 CFL, Germany) using the above solutions. In each run, theeffect of solutions of plain synthetic peptides and plain Aβ₄₀ or Aβ₄₂was independently checked to serve as internal control.

In Vivo Assays in C. elegans

Strains

We followed standard procedures for C. elegans strains maintenance at16° C. The following strains were used: CL2179: dvIs179[myo-3p::GFP::3′UTR(long)+rol-6(su1006)] (available on the world wideweb at: cgc.cbs.umn.edu/strain.php?id=26134); CL2331: dvIs37[myo-3p::GFP::Aββ-42)+rol-6(su1006)] (available on the world wide webat: cgc.cbs.umn.edu/strain.php?id=26135); CL4176: smg-1(cc546) I; dvIs27[myo-3::Aβ(1-42)-let 3′UTR(pAF29); pRF4 (rol-6(su1006)] (available onthe world wide web at: cgc.cbs.umn.edu/strain.php?id=7663).

Treatment with Cyclic Peptides

For treatments with synthetic cyclic peptides, nematodes were exposed tothe indicated AβC5-34 and AβC5-116 concentrations per NGM plate. Stocksolutions of the two chemically synthesized pure peptides were obtainedafter dissolution in DMSO and stored at −20° C. The appropriate amountof compound or DMSO (control cultures) was added onto an E. coli OP50bacterial lawn. Synchronized offspring were randomly distributed totreatment plates to avoid systematic differences in egg lay batches.Treatment and control plates were handled, scored and assayed inparallel.

Paralysis Assay

Synchronized CL4176 animals (150-300 animals per condition) weretransferred to NGM plates containing synthetic AβC5-34, AβC5-116 or0.26% DMSO at 16° C. for 48 h before transgene induction via temperatureup-shift to 25° C. Synchronized offspring were randomly distributed totreatment plates to avoid systematic differences in egg lay batches.Treatment and control plates were handled, scored and assayed inparallel. Scoring of paralyzed animals was initiated 24 h aftertemperature up-shift for the CL4176 strain. Nematodes were scored asparalyzed upon failure to move their half end-body upon prodding.Animals that died were excluded. Plates were indexed as 1, 2, 3 etc byan independent person and were given to the observer for scoring inrandom order. The index was revealed only after scoring.

Dot Blot Analysis

CL4176 animals were allowed to lay eggs for 3 h on NGM plates containingeither synthetic peptides or 0.26% DMSO. Paralysis was induced upontemperature up-shift and the progeny were exposed to either purepeptides or 0.26% DMSO until 50% of the control population wasparalyzed. The animals were then collected and boiled in non-reducingLaemmli buffer. For dot blot analysis, 1-5 μg of protein lysates werespotted onto 0.2 μm nitrocellulose membranes (Bio-Rad, USA) aftersoaking into TBS pre-heated at 80° C. Immunoblotting was performed usingthe anti-Aβ antibody 6E10 (recognizes total Aβ) and the anti-amyloidprotein, oligomer-specific antibody AB9234 (Merck Millipore, Germany).Actin was used as a loading control. Blots were developed withchemiluminescence by using the Clarity™ Western ECL substrate (Bio-Rad,USA). Quantification of the ratio of each detected protein to actinusing the anti-actin antibody sc-1615 (Santa Cruz, Germany), andnormalization to control appears next to each representative blot.

Confocal Microscopy Analysis

For Aβ₃₋₄₂ deposit measurements, synchronized (at the L4 larval stage)CL2331 and CL2179 (control strain) animals exposed to solvent (0.26%DMSO), 10 μM AβC5-34 or 5 μM AβC5-116 and grown at 20° C. (to induceaggregation) until day 2 of adulthood were collected. Animals weremounted onto 2% agarose pads on glass slides, anesthetized with 10 mMlevamisole and observed at RT using a Leica TCS SPE confocal laserscanning microscope (Leica Lasertechnik GmbH, Germany). The LAS AFsoftware was used for image acquisition. At least twentyanimals/condition in three independent experiments were processed.Images of whole worms and focused images in the posterior area ofnematodes were acquired with 10×0.45 and 20×0.70 numerical aperture,respectively.

While the invention has been described with respect to specificembodiments, it is apparent that modifications are possible withoutdeparting from the scope of the invention

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of identifying modulators of amisfolding-prone protein associated with a protein misfolding disease,comprising (A) a transformed bacterial cell or transformed bacterialcells that co-expresses/co-express (a) a nucleic acid encoding therecombinant production of peptide macrocycle or a library of peptidemacrocycles, operably linked to a promoter followed by expressing thenucleic acid of step (a), thereby producing the recombinant peptidemacrocycle or library of peptide macrocycles in the transformed cell,and (b) a bipartite nucleic acid comprising a sequence for a geneencoding a misfolding-prone protein associated with a protein misfoldingdisease (MisP) and a sequence encoding a fluorescent protein (FP)reporter, operably linked to a promoter followed by expressing thenucleic acid of step (b), thereby producing the recombinant MisP-FPpolypeptide fusion in the transformed cell; (B) identification andselection of the bacterial cells of step (A) that exhibit enhancedlevels of MisP-FP fluorescence compared to the bacterial cells notcontaining the nucleic acid of step (Aa); and (C) identification of thebioactive peptide macrocycle(s) that modulate(s) MisP misfolding bydetermining the nucleotide sequence of step (Aa) that encodes thepeptide macrocycle in the selected bacterial cell of step (B).
 2. Amethod of identifying a peptide macrocycle modulating the misfolding ofmisfolding-prone proteins associated with a protein misfolding disease(MisP) according to claim 1, wherein said MisP is selected fromβ-amyloid peptide, SOD1, tau, α-synuclein, polyglutaminated huntingtin,polyglutaminated ataxin-1, polyglutaminated ataxin-2, polyglutaminatedataxin-3, prion protein, islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin),β2-microglbulin, fragments of immunoglobulin light chain, fragments ofimmunoglobulin heavy chain, serum amyloid A, ABri peptide, ADan peptide,transthyretin, apolipoprotein A1, gelsolin, transthyretin, lysozyme,phenylalanine hydroxylase, apolipoprotein A-I, calcitonin, prolactin,TDP-43, FUS/TLS; insulin, hemoglobin, α1-antitrypsin, p53; or variantsthereof.
 3. The peptide macrocycle of claim 1 or 2, to inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation, wherein said peptide macrocycle can be aribosomally synthesized head-to-tail cyclic peptide, side-chain-to-tailcyclic peptide, bicyclic peptide, lanthipeptide, linaridin, proteusin,cyanobactin, thiopeptide, bottromycin, microcin, lasso peptide,microviridin, amatoxin, phallotoxin, θ-defensin, orbitide, or cyclotide.4. Use of the peptide macrocycle of claims 1 to 3 to inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation associated with a protein misfolding disease,wherein the disease is selected from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease,Huntington's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, cancer,phenylketonuria, type 2 diabetes, senile systemic amyloidosis, familialamyloidotic polyneuropathy, familial amyloid cardiomyopathy,leptomeningeal amyloidosis, systemic amyloidosis, familial Britishdementia, familial Danish dementia, light chain amyloidosis, heavy chainamyloidosis, serum amyloid A amyloidosis, lysozyme amyloidosis,dialysis-related amyloidosis, ApoAI amyloidosis, Finnish type familialamyloidosis, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Icelandictype), medullary carcinoma of the thyroid, pituitary prolactinoma,injection-localized amyloidosis, frontotemporal dementia,spinocerebellar ataxia 1, spinocerebellar ataxia 2, spinocerebellarataxia 3, α1-antitrypsin deficiency, sickle-cell anemia, andtransmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
 5. A method of treatment,prevention or diagnosis of a protein misfolding disease comprisingadministering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of apeptide macrocycle according to any one of the claims 1 to
 3. 6. Apharmaceutical composition comprising a peptide macrocycle according toclaims 1 to 3 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 7. Apharmaceutical composition according to claim 6 used for the treatmentor prevention of a protein misfolding disease.
 8. A hybrid moleculecomprising: a) a peptide macrocycle identified or produced according tothe method of claims 1 to 3, and b) a scaffold molecule linked to thepeptide macrocycle; which can be selected from a diagnostic or atherapeutic reagent.
 9. The hybrid molecule of claim 8, wherein thetherapeutic reagent is a cytoprotective agent that renders theaggregates of the target protein less toxic or inhibits target proteinaggregate formation.
 10. The hybrid molecule according to any of claims8 and 9, wherein the scaffold molecule comprises all or a sufficientportion of a protein selected from the group consisting of antibodies,enzymes, chromogenic proteins, fluorescent proteins and fragmentsthereof.
 11. The hybrid molecule according to any of the claims 8 to 10,wherein the diagnostic reagent specifically target protein aggregates indiseased or healthy tissue.
 12. A method of treating or diagnosing aprotein misfolding disease associated with aberrant aggregate formation,the method comprising administering a hybrid molecule according to claim8, wherein the peptide macrocycle of the hybrid molecule specificallyinteracts with the amyloid or non-amyloid form of the target MisP.
 13. Apeptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation wherein thepeptide comprises the amino acid sequence NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), wherein Xis any one of the twenty natural amino acids, N=3-5 and Nu=C, S or T,and wherein said peptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of SOD1and/or mutant SOD1.
 14. A peptide to inhibit protein misfolding andaggregation according to claim 13, wherein the peptide has a cyclicstructure.
 15. A peptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregationaccording to claim 13, wherein Nu=T.
 16. A peptide to inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation according to claim 13, wherein N=4, X₂═S, andX₄═W.
 17. A peptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregationaccording to claim 13, wherein the X₁ is any amino acid excluding I, N,Q, M, E, H, and K, preferably it is A, L, V, F, W, Y, C, S, T, D, R, Por G, and more preferably it is S, A, F, W.
 18. A peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 13, wherein the X₃is any amino acid excluding I, N, Q, C, D, E, K and P, preferably it isA, L, V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H or G, and more preferably it is V, F, W,M, or H.
 19. Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding andaggregation according to claim 13, wherein the X₃ is preferably W. 20.Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation accordingto claims 13 to 19, wherein the peptide is preferably selected from anyone of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2,SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, up to SEQ ID NO:46, and more preferably fromthe amino acid sequences TWSVW, TASFW, and TFSMW.
 21. Use of a peptideto inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to claims 13 and14; wherein said peptide is a linearized version of the cyclic peptide.22. A hybrid molecule comprising: a) a peptide set forth in any one ofthe claims 13 to 21, that specifically interacts with the amyloid ornon-amyloid form of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1; and b) a scaffold moleculecomprising a diagnostic or therapeutic reagent.
 23. The hybrid moleculeof claim 22, wherein the diagnostic or therapeutic reagent comprises apolypeptide, small molecule or compound.
 24. The hybrid molecule ofclaim 22, wherein the scaffold molecule comprises all or a sufficientportion of a protein selected from the group consisting of antibodies,enzymes, chromogenic proteins, fluorescent proteins and fragmentsthereof.
 25. The hybrid molecule of claim 22, wherein the therapeuticagent is a neuroprotective agent that renders SOD1 aggregates less toxicor inhibits SOD1 aggregate formation.
 26. The hybrid molecule of claim22, wherein the diagnostic reagent specifically images SOD1 aggregatesin neuronal tissue.
 27. A method of treatment, prevention or diagnosisof amyotrophic lateral sclerosis comprising administering to a subject atherapeutically effective amount of a peptide or hybrid moleculeaccording to any one of the claims 13 to
 26. 28. A pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising a peptide or hybrid molecule according to claims13 to 26 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 29. A pharmaceuticalcomposition according to claim 28 used for the treatment or preventionof amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
 30. An isolated nucleic acid sequenceencoding the peptide of claims 13 to
 26. 31. A vector comprising thenucleic acid sequence of claim
 30. 32. The vector of claim 31, whereinthe vector is an expression vector.
 33. A host cell comprising thevector of claim
 32. 34. The host cell of claim 33, wherein the host cellis a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.
 35. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation, wherein the peptide comprises theamino acid sequence NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), wherein X is any one of thetwenty natural amino acids, N=3-5 and Nu=C, S or T, and wherein saidpeptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of β-amyloid peptides. 36.Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation accordingto claim 35, wherein the peptide has a cyclic structure.
 37. Use of apeptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to anyof the preceding claims, wherein Nu=T.
 38. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to any of the precedingclaims, wherein N=3 and X₄═R.
 39. Use of a peptide to inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation according to claim 38, wherein the X₁ isselected from T, R, D, L, F or A.
 40. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 38, wherein the X₂is selected from C, R, S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F.
 41. Use of a peptide toinhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to any of claims 38to 40, wherein the peptide is selected from TTCR, TTRR, TTSR, TRGR,TTGR, TRRR, TDQR, TLIR, TLWR, TLGR, TFDR, TAFR (SEQ ID NOs 210-221). 42.Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation accordingto any of claims 35 to 37, wherein N=4.
 43. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 42, wherein the X₁is any amino acid excluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P, preferably it isS, H, T, V or A, and more preferably it is T, V or A.
 44. Use of apeptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to claim43, wherein the X₂ is any amino acid excluding E, preferably anon-negatively charged amino acid, and more preferably it is selectedfrom I, L, V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H, or G.
 45. Use of a peptide toinhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 43,wherein the X₃ is any amino acid excluding Q, M and K, is preferably anon-negatively charged amino acid, and is more preferably selected fromA, V, F, W, C, S, T, D, C, R, H, P or G.
 46. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 43, wherein the X₄is preferably R or T.
 47. Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfoldingand aggregation according to any of claims 43 to 46, wherein the peptideis preferably selected from any one of the amino acid sequences setforth in SEQ ID NO:47, SEQ ID NO:48, SEQ ID NO:49, SEQ ID NO:50, . . . ,up to SEQ ID NO:209, and more preferably from the amino acid sequencesTAFDR, TAWCR, TTWCR, TTVDR, TTYAR, TTTAR, SASPT.
 48. Use of a peptide toinhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to any of claims 35to 37, wherein N=5.
 49. Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfoldingand aggregation according to claim 48, wherein the X₁ is selected fromI, L, V, C, S, K or P, and is more preferably P, V or L.
 50. Use of apeptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to claim48, wherein the X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, C, S, T, D, E, H,K, P, or G and is more preferably V or A.
 51. Use of a peptide toinhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 48,wherein the X₃ is selected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, E or R, and is morepreferably W.
 52. Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding andaggregation according to claim 48, wherein the X₄ is selected from L, V,F, Y, S or R and is more preferably F.
 53. Use of a peptide to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation according to claim 48, wherein the X₅is selected from W, M, N, D, or E and is more preferably D.
 54. Use of apeptide to inhibit protein misfolding and aggregation according to anyof claims 48 to 53 wherein the peptide is selected from the amino acidsequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:176, SEQ ID NO:177, . . . , up to SEQID NO:209, and is most preferably TPVWFD (SEQ ID NO:176) or TPAWFD (SEQID NO:177).
 55. Use of a peptide to inhibit protein misfolding andaggregation according to claim 36; wherein said peptide is a linearizedversion of the cyclic peptide.
 56. Use of a peptide to inhibit proteinmisfolding and aggregation according to any of the preceding claims,wherein said peptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of theβ-amyloid peptide.
 57. A method of treatment, prevention or diagnosis ofa disease related to protein misfolding and aggregation, comprisingadministering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of apeptide according to any one of the claims 35 to 55, wherein the diseaseis selected from Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington'sdisease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, typeII diabetes, familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy, systemic amyloidosis,and transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
 58. A method of treatment,prevention or diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease comprising administeringto a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide accordingto any one of the claims 35 to
 55. 59. A pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a peptide according to any one of the claims 35 to 55 and apharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 60. An isolated nucleic acidsequence encoding the peptide of claims 35 to
 55. 61. A vectorcomprising the nucleic acid sequence of claim
 60. 62. The vector ofclaim 61, wherein the vector is an expression vector.
 63. A host cellcomprising the vector of claim
 62. 64. The host cell of claim 63,wherein the host cell is a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.
 65. A hybridmolecule comprising: a) a peptide set forth in any one of the claims 35to 55, that specifically interacts with the amyloid form of the Aβpeptide; and b) a scaffold molecule comprising a diagnostic ortherapeutic reagent.
 66. The hybrid molecule of claim 65, wherein thediagnostic or therapeutic reagent comprises a polypeptide, smallmolecule or compound.
 67. The hybrid molecule of claim 66, wherein thepolypeptide comprises all or a sufficient portion of a protein selectedfrom the group consisting of antibodies, enzymes, chromogenic proteins,fluorescent proteins and fragments thereof.
 68. The hybrid molecule ofclaim 66, wherein the therapeutic agent is a neuroprotective agent thatrenders amyloid plaques less toxic or inhibits plaque formation.
 69. Thehybrid molecule of claim 66, wherein the diagnostic reagent specificallyimages amyloid aggregates in neuronal tissue.
 70. A method of treatingor diagnosing a neurodegenerative disease associated with aberrantaggregate formation, the method comprising administering a hybridmolecule of claim 66 to a subject having, or predisposed to having, thedisease.
 71. A method of identifying modulators of a misfolding-proneprotein associated with a protein misfolding disease, comprising: (A)obtaining a population of transformed bacterial cells that co-express:(a) a nucleic acid encoding a library of peptide macrocycles, operablylinked to a promoter and; (b) a bipartite nucleic acid comprising asequence for a gene encoding a misfolding-prone protein associated witha protein misfolding disease (MisP) and a sequence encoding a proteinreporter; (B) identifying bacterial cells of step (A) that exhibitenhanced levels of protein reporter activity; and (C) identifying of thebioactive peptide macrocycles in the library that modulate MisPmisfolding.
 72. The method of claim 71, wherein the protein reporter isa fluorescent protein (FP) reporter, and step (B) comprises identifyingbacterial cells that exhibit enhanced levels of MisP-FP fluorescence.73. The method of claim 71, wherein the protein reporter is an enzyme.74. The method of claim 71, wherein the identification of step (B)comprises selection.
 75. The method of claim 71, wherein step (C)comprises sequencing the nucleic acid of step (Aa).
 76. The method ofclaim 71, wherein the nucleic acids of (a) and (b) are encoded on thesame vector.
 77. The method of claim 71, wherein the vector is aplasmid.
 78. The method of claim 71, wherein said MisP is selected fromβ-amyloid peptide, SOD1, tau, α-synuclein, polyglutaminated huntingtin,polyglutaminated ataxin-1, polyglutaminated ataxin-2, polyglutaminatedataxin-3, prion protein, islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin),β2-microglbulin, fragments of immunoglobulin light chain, fragments ofimmunoglobulin heavy chain, serum amyloid A, ABri peptide, ADan peptide,transthyretin, apolipoprotein A1, gelsolin, transthyretin, lysozyme,phenylalanine hydroxylase, apolipoprotein A-I, calcitonin, prolactin,TDP-43, FUS/TLS; insulin, hemoglobin, α1-antitrypsin, p53 or variantsthereof.
 79. The method of claim 71, wherein said peptide macrocycle canbe a ribosomally synthesized as a head-to-tail cyclic peptide,side-chain-to-tail cyclic peptide, bicyclic peptide, lanthipeptide,linaridin, proteusin, cyanobactin, thiopeptide, bottromycin, microcin,lasso peptide, microviridin, amatoxin, phallotoxin, θ-defensin,orbitide, or cyclotide.
 80. The method of claim 71, wherein the diseaseis selected from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Huntington'sdisease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, cancer, phenylketonuria, type 2diabetes, senile systemic amyloidosis, familial amyloidoticpolyneuropathy, familial amyloid cardiomyopathy, leptomeningealamyloidosis, systemic amyloidosis, familial British dementia, familialDanish dementia, light chain amyloidosis, heavy chain amyloidosis, serumamyloid A amyloidosis, lysozyme amyloidosis, dialysis-relatedamyloidosis, ApoAI amyloidosis, Finnish type familial amyloidosis,hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Icelandic type),medullary carcinoma of the thyroid, pituitary prolactinoma,injection-localized amyloidosis, frontotemporal dementia,spinocerebellar ataxia 1, spinocerebellar ataxia 2, spinocerebellarataxia 3, α1-antitrypsin deficiency, sickle-cell anemia, ortransmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
 81. The method of any one ofclaims 71-80, further comprising recombinantly producing or chemicallysynthesizing the identified bioactive peptide macrocycle.
 82. A methodof treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a protein misfolding diseasecomprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amountof the bioactive peptide macrocycle of claim 81 or a bioactive peptidemacrocycle identified by any one of the methods of claims 71-80.
 83. Apharmaceutical composition comprising the bioactive peptide macrocycleaccording to claim 81 or a bioactive peptide macrocycle identified byany one of the methods of claims 71-80; and a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier.
 84. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim83 used for the treatment or prevention of a protein misfolding disease.85. A hybrid molecule comprising: a) a peptide macrocycle identified orproduced according to the method of any one of claims 71-81, and b) ascaffold molecule linked to the peptide macrocycle.
 86. The molecule ofclaim 85, wherein the scaffold molecule is a diagnostic or a therapeuticreagent.
 87. The molecule of claim 86, wherein the therapeutic reagentis a cytoprotective agent that renders the aggregates of the targetprotein less toxic or inhibits target protein aggregate formation. 88.The molecule of claim 85, wherein the scaffold molecule comprises all ora sufficient portion of a protein selected from the group consisting ofantibodies, enzymes, chromogenic proteins, and fluorescent proteins. 89.The molecule of claim 86, wherein the diagnostic reagent specificallytargets protein aggregates in diseased or healthy tissue.
 90. A methodof treating or diagnosing a protein misfolding disease associated withaberrant aggregate formation, the method comprising administering ahybrid molecule according to claim 85, wherein the peptide is a cyclicpeptide, and wherein the peptide macrocycle of the hybrid moleculespecifically interacts with the amyloid or non-amyloid form of thetarget MisP.
 91. A peptide comprising the amino acid sequence NuX₁X₂ . .. X_(N), wherein: Nu is T; N=4; X₁ is any amino acid excluding I, N, Q,M, E, H, and K; X₂═S; X₃ is any amino acid excluding I, N, Q, C, D, E, Kand P; and X₄═W, wherein the specifically interacts with the amyloid ornon-amyloid form of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.
 92. The peptide accordingto claim 91, wherein the X₁ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, C, S, T, D, R, P or G.93. The peptide according to claim 92, wherein the X₁ is is S, A, F orW.
 94. The peptide according to claim 91, wherein the X₃ is A, L, V, F,W, Y, M, S, T, R, H or G.
 95. The peptide according to claim 94, whereinthe X₃ is V, F, W, M, or H.
 96. The peptide of claim 91, wherein: Nu isT; N=4; X₁ is A, L, V, F, W, Y, C, S, T, D, R, P or G; X₂═S; X₃ is A, L,V, F, W, Y, M, S, T, R, H or G; and X₄═W.
 97. The peptide of claim 91,wherein: Nu is T; N=4; X₁ is S, A, F or W; X₂═S; X₃ is V, F, W, M, or H;and X₄═W.
 98. A peptide comprising the amino acid sequence set forth inany one of SEQ ID NO:1-46, wherein the peptide prevents misfolding andaggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.
 99. The peptide according to anyone of claims 91-98, wherein the peptide comprises an amino acidsequence selected from TWSVW, TASFW, and TFSMW.
 100. The peptideaccording to any one of claims 91-99, wherein said peptide preventsmisfolding and aggregation of SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.
 101. The peptideaccording to any one of claims 91-100, wherein at least one position ofthe peptide is a D amino acid.
 102. The peptide according to any one ofclaims 91-100, wherein the peptide is in a linearized form.
 103. Ahybrid molecule comprising: a) a peptide set forth in any one of theclaims 91-102, and b) a scaffold molecule.
 104. The molecule of claim103, wherein the scaffolding molecule comprises a cell penetratingpeptide.
 105. The molecule of claim 103, wherein the scaffold moleculecomprises a diagnostic or therapeutic reagent.
 106. The hybrid moleculeof claim 103, wherein the scaffold molecule comprises a polypeptide,small molecule or compound.
 107. The hybrid molecule of claim 103,wherein the scaffold molecule comprises all or a sufficient portion of aprotein selected from the group consisting of antibodies, enzymes,chromogenic proteins, fluorescent proteins and fragments thereof. 108.The hybrid molecule of claim 105, wherein the therapeutic agent is aneuroprotective agent that renders SOD1 aggregates less toxic orinhibits SOD1 aggregate formation.
 109. The hybrid molecule of claim105, wherein the diagnostic reagent specifically images SOD1 aggregatesin neuronal tissue.
 110. Use of a peptide of any one of claims 91-101 ora molecule of any one of claims 103-109, to inhibit protein misfoldingand aggregation wherein the peptide prevents misfolding and aggregationof SOD1 and/or mutant SOD1.
 111. A method of treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis comprising administering to asubject a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide or hybridmolecule according to any one of the claims 91 to
 109. 112. Apharmaceutical composition comprising a peptide or hybrid moleculeaccording to any one of claims 91 to 109 and a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier.
 113. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim112 used for the treatment or prevention of amyotrophic lateralsclerosis.
 114. An isolated nucleic acid sequence encoding the peptideof claims 91 to
 109. 115. A vector comprising the nucleic acid sequenceof claim
 114. 116. The vector of claim 115, wherein the vector is anexpression vector.
 117. A host cell comprising the vector of claim 116.118. The host cell of claim 117, wherein the host cell is a prokaryoticor eukaryotic cell.
 119. A peptide, wherein the peptide comprises theamino acid sequence NuX₁X₂ . . . X_(N), wherein: (A) Nu=T; N=3; X₁ isselected from T, R, D, L, F or A; X₂ is selected from C, R, S, G, Q, I,W, D, or F; and X₃═R; (B) Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is any amino acid excluding F,W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding E; X₃ is anyamino acid excluding Q, M and K; and X₄ is R; or (C) Nu=T; N=5; X₁ is I,L, V, C, S, K or P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding Y, N, Q, M, and R; X₃is selected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, E, or R; X₄ is selected from L, V, F,Y, S or R; and X₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, or E, wherein the peptideis a cyclic peptide and wherein the peptide specifically interacts witha monomeric, oligomeric and/or amyloid form of the Aβ peptide.
 120. Thepeptide of claim 119, wherein Nu=T; N=3; X₁ is selected from T, R, D, L,F or A; X₂ is selected from C, R, S, G, Q, I, W, D, or F; and X₃═R. 121.The peptide of claim 119, wherein Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is any amino acidexcluding F, W, Y, Q, D, E, K and P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding E;X₃ is any amino acid excluding Q, M and K; and X₄ is R.
 122. The peptideof claim 121, wherein X₁ is selected from A, I, L, V, N, C, M, S, T, R,H, or G.
 123. The peptide of claim 122, wherein X₁ is T, V or A. 124.The peptide of claim 121, wherein X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W,Y, N, Q, C, M, S, T, D, R, H, K, P or G.
 125. The peptide of claim 124,wherein X₂ is I, L, V, F, Y or T.
 126. The peptide of claim 121, whereinX₃ is A, I, L, V, F, W, Y, N, C, S, T, D, E, R, H, P or G.
 127. Thepeptide of claim 126, wherein X₃ is A, W, or D.
 128. The peptide ofclaim 121, wherein Nu=T; N=4; X₁ is selected from A, I, L, V, N, C, M,S, T, R, H, or G; X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, Y, N, Q, C, M,S, T, D, R, H, K, P or G; X₃ is A, I, L, V, F, W, Y, N, C, S, T, D, E,R, H, P or G; and X₄ is R.
 129. The peptide of claim 121, wherein Nu=T;N=4; X₁ is T, V or A; X₂ is I, L, V, F, Y or T; X₃ is A, W, or D; and X₄is R.
 130. The peptide of claim 119, wherein Nu=T; N=5; X₁ is I, L, V,C, S, K or P; X₂ is any amino acid excluding Y, N, Q, M, and R; X₃ isselected from I, L, V, F, W, Y, E, or R; X₄ is selected from L, V, F, Y,S or R; and X₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, or E
 131. The peptide ofclaim 130, wherein the X₁ is selected from I, L, V, C, S, K or P. 132.The peptide of claim 131, wherein the X₁ is P, V or L.
 133. The peptideof claim 130, wherein the X₂ is selected from A, I, L, V, F, W, C, S, T,D, E, H, K, P, or G.
 134. The peptide of claim 133, wherein the X₂ is Vor A.
 135. The peptide of claim 130, wherein the X₃ is selected from I,L, V, F, W, Y, E or R.
 136. The peptide of claim 135, wherein the X₃ isW.
 137. The peptide of claim 130, wherein the X₄ is selected from L, V,F, Y, S or R.
 138. The peptide of claim 137, wherein the X₄ is F. 139.The peptide of claim 130, wherein the X₅ is selected from W, M, N, D, orE.
 140. The peptide of claim 139, wherein the X₅ is D.
 118. The peptideof claim 119, wherein Nu=T; N=5; X₁ is P, V or L; X₂ is V or A; X₃ isselected from I, F, or W; X₄ is selected from L, F, or R; and X₅ isselected from W, N, or D.
 141. The peptide of claim 119, wherein Nu=T;N=5; X₁ is P, V or L; X₂ is V or A; X₃ is W; X₄ is F; and X₅ is D. 142.The peptide of claim 120, wherein the peptide comprises the sequenceTTCR, TTRR, TTSR, TRGR, TTGR, TRRR, TDQR, TLIR, TLWR, TLGR, TFDR, orTAFR (SEQ ID NOs 210-221).
 143. A peptide comprising the amino acidsequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NO:47-209, wherein, the peptideis cyclic and specifically interacts with a monomeric, oligomeric and/oramyloid form of the Aβ peptide.
 144. The peptide of claim 128, whereinthe peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from TAFDR, TAWCR,TTWCR, TTVDR, TTYAR, TTTAR or SASPT.
 145. The peptide of claim 129,wherein the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from theamino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:176-209.
 146. The peptide ofclaim 129 or 145, wherein the peptide comprises an amino acid sequenceof TPVWFD (SEQ ID NO:176) or TPAWFD (SEQ ID NO:177).
 147. The peptideaccording to any one of claims 119-147, wherein at least one position ofthe peptide is a D amino acid.
 148. The peptide according to any one ofclaims 119-147, wherein the peptide is in a linearized form.
 149. Ahybrid molecule comprising: a) a peptide set forth in any one of theclaims 119-147, that specifically interacts with a monomeric, oligomericand/or amyloid form of the Aβ peptide; and b) a scaffold molecule. 150.The molecule of claim 149, wherein the scaffolding molecule comprises acell penetrating peptide.
 151. The molecule of claim 149, wherein thescaffold molecule comprises a diagnostic or therapeutic reagent. 152.The hybrid molecule of claim 149, wherein the scaffold moleculecomprises a polypeptide, small molecule or compound.
 153. The hybridmolecule of claim 152, wherein the polypeptide comprises all or asufficient portion of a protein selected from the group consisting ofantibodies, enzymes, chromogenic proteins, or a fluorescent protein.154. The hybrid molecule of claim 151, wherein the therapeutic agent isa neuroprotective agent that renders amyloid plaques less toxic orinhibits plaque formation.
 155. The hybrid molecule of claim 151,wherein the diagnostic reagent specifically images oligomers and/oramyloid aggregates in neuronal tissue.
 156. Use of a peptide accordingto anyone of claims 119-147 or a molecule of claims 156-161, to inhibitprotein misfolding and aggregation.
 157. The use of claim 156, whereinsaid peptide prevents misfolding and aggregation of the β-amyloidpeptide.
 158. A method of treatment, prevention or diagnosis of adisease related to protein misfolding and aggregation, comprisingadministering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of apeptide according to any one of the claims 119 to 147 or a molecule ofclaims 156-161, wherein the disease is selected from Alzheimer'sdisease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, type 2 diabetes, familialamyloidotic polyneuropathy, systemic amyloidosis, and transmissiblespongiform encephalopathy.
 159. A method of treatment, prevention ordiagnosis of Alzheimer's disease comprising administering to a subject atherapeutically effective amount of a peptide according to any one ofthe claims 119 to
 147. 160. A pharmaceutical composition comprising apeptide according to any one of the claims 119 to 147 and apharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 161. An isolated nucleic acidsequence encoding the peptide of claims 119 to
 147. 162. A vectorcomprising the nucleic acid sequence of claim
 161. 163. The vector ofclaim 162, wherein the vector is an expression vector.
 164. A host cellcomprising the vector of claim
 163. 165. The host cell of claim 164,wherein the host cell is a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.